Illinois, Sauk, Musquakkee or Foxes, Menomennee or Wild-rice people.

A third group, the Iroquois of Canada, were surrounded by the Algonkins. In the year 1700, the tribes of the Senecas, Cayugas, Onondagos, Oneidas, and Mohawks formed the league of the "five nations," of which the Tuscaroras became a sixth member in 1712. The Hurons, or Wyandots, were allied to them in language, but were, however, in a constant state of warfare with the Iroquois confederation. They formerly received from the allied tribes the title of "father," but having been conquered, they were forced to consent to address the other Iroquois as "elder brothers." By a treaty made in 1591, the Iroquois were allowed to address the Delawares only by the title of "uncle," though the latter were addressed by all other tribes as "grandfather."

The fourth group consists of the Dahcotas, better known by their nickname of Sioux. They inhabit grassy plains in the territory of the United States, between the Rocky Mountains and the Mississippi, as far south as Arkansas. The group includes the Assiniboins, the Winnebagos or Winnepegs, the Iowa Omaha, Osages, Kansas, Arkansas, Menitarees, the Crows or Upsarokas, and the Mandanas.

The Pawnees and Riccaras stand alone in and about the Rocky Mountains, between the upper course of the north fork of the Platte river and Arkansas. In the south-east of the United States were the Choctaws and Chikasas, allied in language with the Muskogees or the union of Creek tribes, of which the noble Seminoles, whose name signifies "fugitives," were formerly the oldest member. South and North Carolina were inhabited by the Cherokee tribes, which are quite distinct in language from the surrounding tribes. In the same way the former inhabitants of Texas can neither be united into a common group nor attached to any other groups. Among them were the Keioways, the Paducas, the Caddos, or Cadodaquius, to which belong the Tejas, or Texas, and the remarkable Natchez on the Lower Mississippi.

(b) The Hunting Tribes of South America.-On the Southern Continent a high degree of civilization occurs only on and near the Andes. Brazil, the Guayana territories, and Venezuela are

Hunting Tribes of the South.

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entirely occupied by so-called hunting tribes, some of which are still in the lowest stages of social and intellectual development. Their languages are even more varied than those of North America, and no scholar has seriously attempted to reduce this confusion to order. Old charts professing to show the distribution of language have given rise to the error that a single language prevails throughout Brazil, to which the name of lingoa geral (common Indian language), or Guarani, is given. Von Martius was the first to show that this Tupi language, although understood by individuals in every tribe, really prevails only in two districts, remote from one another, namely, between the Tapajos and the Xingu, both affluents of the Amazon, and in the province of Chiquitos. Beside these, a more dense Tupi population occurs in Paraguay, in a district on the right bank of the central Paraná. Other Tupi tribes have strayed as far as the Atlantic coast, and only few provinces of Brazil are without some traces of them. Amazon, on the contrary, they are totally wanting.

66

66

North of the

Martius makes a distinct group of the Lenguas or Tongue Indians, so called because they pierce the lower lip. By the Tupi they are called Guaycuru, or runners; they inhabit the western bank of the Paraná and Paraguay, and are remarkable for their rude manners. To other tribes between the sources of the Paraná and the Madeira, Martius gives the collective name of Parexis, or Poragi, signifying "highlanders." The enormous territory drained by the Tocantin is occupied by the Gês, also called Crans, which means chiefs," or sons." Unlike the Tupi, who sleep in hammocks, they use a low trestle. The Crens, or Gueras, who are scattered between Parahiba and Rio das Contas, are allied to them. Cren, like Cran, signifies "the chiefs." To the Crens belong the Botocudos, the Coroados, the Puris, and the Malalis. Martius gives the collective name of Guck or Coco hordes to several Indian tribes in the interior of the provinces of Bahia, Pernambuco, and Piauhy; as these words, as titles for a maternal uncle, are common to them all. these belong the Indians on the Amazon, who call themselves Ore Manoas, which means we the Manoas, and the Macusi and Maypures in Guayana and Venezuela. There are a few national names in North America, but in Brazil there are only tribal

To

names, of which Herr von Martius collected no less than 106 on the Rio Negro alone. Consciousness of nationality implies higher social development and common historical achievements, which are wanting here. The tribes on the Amazon are but little better. There we find the warlike Mandrucu, hybrids related to the Tupis, who are conspicuous for their strict discipline, the use of trumpet signals in battle, and a regular service of outposts in times of war. On the Rio Negro live the Miranhas, formerly cannibals, and otherwise known for the production of excellent hammocks, each of which costs the labour of six weeks. Where the Amazon approaches the confines of Peru, we come upon the Tecunas, whose masquerades have already been mentioned; and on the boundaries of Venezuela we find the Uapes, whose spacious buildings we have noted. Guayana is mainly occupied by two tribes, who do not, however, occupy separate districts, namely, the Arowaks, or Flour people, so called because in them we have to respect the inventors of the art of preparing tapioca, and the Caribs (since the seventeenth century erroneously called Caraibs), to whom the Spaniards attributed everything most odious, and who remained notorious for their barbarity, until the experiences of A. von Humboldt and the Brothers Schomburgk showed them to be an uncorrupted race, full of good impulses. 53

The northern and southern continents of America resemble one another in many great features, and especially in their shape, for both consist of great triangles, the apices of which are towards the south. But their vertical structure is also similar, inasmuch as on the western shore the Cordilleras rise from the Pacific Ocean, and plateaux are intercalated between their ridges. As a necessary consequence of this analogous structure, we find no forests eastward of the slopes of the Rocky Mountains and the Cordilleras, or in their "rain shadow," but open steppes, which are called prairies in North America, savannahs in Central America, llanos in Venezuela, and pampas on the Argentine rivers. It is only to the east of the steppes that the great forest districts are found stretching over

53 As Richard Schomburgk observes, they do not poison their arrows although the curare plant (Strychnos toxifera) grows in their territory. Reisen in Britisch-Guiana, vol. ii. p. 429. Leipzic, 1848.

Domestication of Animals.

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the Atlantic shores of the northern and southern continents. In the grassy plains of South as well as of North America we look in vain for the social phenomena which have been everywhere evoked by corresponding regions in the Old World. We there note the absence of nations representing the Berber tribes of Northern Africa, the Bedouins of Arabia, the Turks of Turkestan, the Mongols of the desert of Gobi, or the Lapps and Samoyeds of the far north of America. Neglect of cattle-breeding is often attributed to the American aborigines, but the assertion is inaccurate, for, strictly speaking, it is only the production of milk which is totally uncared for. Von Martius states 54 that there is a special expression in the Tupi language, or lingoa geral, of Brazil, for the taming wild animals, implying that the animals are to be induced to lay aside their ferocity. Most natives of Brazil take pleasure in intercourse with animals. They are in the habit of attaching monkeys and parrots to themselves, and by feeding the latter on fish they produce red and yellow feathers when the plumage is green. Their huts are often like menageries. But in the history of civilization, the breeding of animals first acquires much significance when man purposes by this means to provide for his own future maintenance, and discontinues the habit of living from hand to mouth on the wild products of nature. On the Amazon a sufficient number of turtles might be taken to supply food during the whole year to the inhabitants of the shores, but no efforts are made to obtain them, except in the dry season when the animals come to land. For this reason almost every family possesses a closed tank near its dwelling, in which a number of live animals are stored for the rainy season.55 Orellana,56 the discoverer of the Amazon found these domestic precautions in use among the natives. Many Brazilian tribes were also formerly, as they still are, in the habit of breeding guinea-fowls (Grax) for the sake of their palatable flesh. On the coast of Venezuela, the Spanish sailors saw domestic animals, which they described as rabbits, geese, and pigeons.57 In the Antilles the prairie dog

54 Ethnographie, vol. i. p. 672.

55 Bates, Amazon, p. 321.

56 Oviedo, Historia general, vol. iv. p. 553. 57 Gomara, Historia de las Indias, cap. 75.

was bred, and in Hayti the guinea-pig. Peccaries and tapirs easily become accustomed to the proximity of man, and were and are still often tamed by the Brazilians, but they do not breed in confinement. 58

There is, however, no reliable record that any of the tribes of the northern continent, east of the Rocky Mountains, always excepting the Eskimo, were in the habit of breeding animals for domestic purposes prior to the discovery. Yet North America, unlike the southern continent, had the advantage of a gregarious animal which was in every way adapted to encourage a nomadic life. We mean the buffalo, or bison, which, with the exception of one small district, does not appear on the western slopes of the Rocky Mountains, and on the east does not extend very far beyond the Mississippi. When captured young, the bison allows itself to be tamed and trained; and it has also formed a useful hybrid race with European cattle. As it was neither bred nor even preserved by the natives, it is obvious that the Redskins are wanting in the inclination or the patience for taming animals. The native wild duck was not domesticated until European settlers did so; and the turkey, which was a domestic animal in Mexico, was found only in a wild condition on the territory of the United States. The northern continent is inhabited by the reindeer (cariboo), which has been everywhere tamed in the Old World, but never by the Canadians of the New World. The dog is indeed found among the tribes of the Hudson's Bay territory as a domestic animal, and trained for hunting, but it is probable that it was domesticated only after the immigration of the Eskimo, who had seen the dog used as a draught animal in their Asiatic home. But as the inclination to domesticate animals was naturally very weak in the North American Indians, there was no conceivable reason why they should tame the bison, for hunting supplied them with as much meat and as many skins as they could require. No nation in America ever thought of using milk as food. The use of milk belongs entirely to a very late and high stage of development in nomadic life. Even at the present day, the great herds of cattle on the pampas and llanos yield nothing but meat

58 Darwin, Plants and Animals under Domestication, vol. ii. p. 150.