the U.S. Representative expressed the revulsion the United States feels toward apartheid. He presented a defense of U.S. policies toward South Africa and outlined what the United States was willing to do to end this degrading system. He asked that a policy of moderation and gradual change be given time to succeed.

At each Commission session for several years the United States has sought at least one draft resolution on South Africa and apartheid that expresses in balanced and noninflammatory terms the universal condemnation of the apartheid system felt by all delegations. As in previous Commission sessions, the United States decided not to call for a vote on a resolution about the detention of children in South Africa. (Resolution 1991/8.) In a statement, the U.S. Representative noted that had there been a vote, the United States would not have participated.

The United States also joined consensus on resolution 1991/ 21 on human rights in South Africa. Although the resolution contended that human rights violations under apartheid were continuing in South Africa, it did note some recent positive changes, such as the unbanning of political organizations and release of political prisoners.

The United States voted against two resolutions entitled "The adverse consequences for the enjoyment of human rights of political, military, economic and other forms of assistance given to the colonial and racist regime in southern Africa." Resolution 1991/17 was adopted 25 to 13 (U.S.), with 3 abstentions, in a rollcall vote requested by the United States. The United States and others rejected provisions condemning various forms of legitimate economic activity by Western corporations in South Africa. The Commission also considered a resolution recommending ECOSOC endorse the report on this subject submitted by the special rapporteur of the Subcommission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities. The United States again called for a roll-call vote. Resolution 1991/9 was adopted by a vote of 28 to 13 (U.S.), with 1 abstention.

Resolution 1991/10 concerned implementation of the International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid. It was approved by a vote of 29 to 1 (U.S.), with 12 abstentions. The United States opposed the resolution primarily because of provisions equating apartheid with genocide and condemning transnational corporations engaged in legal activities. In an earlier roll-call vote the United States voted against the paragraphs containing such language, but each was retained by a large margin.

Finally, resolution 1991/11 on activities of the Second Decade to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination was adopted without a vote. In an explanation of position, the United States noted that it did not participate in this vote, following a long held policy of nonparticipation in voting on resolutions relating to the Second Decade. This policy dated from the adoption in 1975 of a General Assembly resolution equating Zionism with racism. (The 1975 determination that Zionism is a form of racism was revoked by the General Assembly in 1991.)

ECOSOC endorsed each of the above UNHRC resolutions at its first regular 1991 session in New York in May.

In the General Assembly, three resolutions on racial discrimination and apartheid were adopted. The United States again did not participate in the vote on the resolution on the Second Decade to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination, which was adopted without a vote. (Resolution 46/85.) The United States joined consensus on resolution 46/83 on the report of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination. Resolution 46/84 concerning the status of the International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid was approved by a vote of 118 to 1 (U.S.), with 39 abstentions. The United States opposed the resolution for the reasons given above and for its characterization of apartheid as the root cause of all conflict in southern Africa.

World Conference on Human Rights

In 1990 the General Assembly decided that the first World Conference on Human Rights in 25 years should be held in 1993, with the first preparatory committee meeting to be held in September 1991 in Geneva. The General Assembly asked the Human Rights Commission to elaborate general guidelines for this preparatory committee. The Commission adopted resolution 1991/ 30 by consensus, recommending that the preparatory committee compile suggestions on ways and means to ensure the universality, objectivity and nonselectivity of the consideration of human rights issues in UN human rights forums. At the preparatory committee, the United States urged that the emphasis in the World Conference be on reviewing existing UN human rights standards and mechanisms and on ways to make them more effective, rather than on creating new standards and mechanisms. The General Assembly in resolution 46/116 decided to adopt the recommendations of the preparatory committee, directing that the agenda and rules of procedure for the World Conference be determined at preparatory committee sessions

during 1992 and requesting that the Secretary General begin to prepare studies and reference materials for the committee sessions and the World Conference. The resolution was adopted without a vote.

Elimination of all Forms of Religious Intolerance

At the Human Rights Commission session the United States and 25 other cosponsors promoted a resolution entitled "Implementation of the Declaration on the Elimination of all Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief.” It was adopted by consensus. (Resolution 1991/63.) The resolution calls on states to take appropriate measures to combat religious intolerance. The General Assembly adopted by consensus resolution 46/131, which recommends that the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion be given appropriate priority in advisory services in the field of human rights.

Detention or Imprisonment

The Human Rights Commission annually examines the question of the human rights of all persons subjected to any form of detention or imprisonment. This agenda item includes several sub-issues: torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment; enforced or involuntary disappearances; human rights in the administration of justice; and the right to freedom of expression and opinion.

At the Commission session the United States introduced an initiative on arbitrary detention, with the aim of providing a mechanism that could specifically address the issue of persons being detained for their political beliefs. The original U.S. proposal was to create a special rapporteur. After extensive negotiations, the Commission adopted resolution 1991/42 by consensus, thus creating a working group of five independent experts with a mandate for 3 years. The working group was tasked with "investigating cases of detention imposed arbitrarily or otherwise inconsistently with the relevant international standards . [or] the relevant international legal instruments accepted by the states concerned," a definition that would include political prisoners.

The subject of torture was addressed in several resolutions. The United States joined consensus on resolution 1991/35, supporting the Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhu

man or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. The Commission also adopted without a vote resolution 1991/36, encouraging support for the UN Voluntary Fund for Victims of Torture. Resolution 1991/38 commended the special rapporteur on torture for his report to the Commission and encouraged his continued consultations with the UN Committee Against Torture to establish procedures for cooperation and avoiding duplication in UN activities to combat torture.

On enforced or involuntary disappearances, the Commission adopted without a vote resolution 1991/41 commending the working group on that subject for its work and urging as many governments as possible to cooperate with the working group. A consensus resolution on hostage-taking, cosponsored by the United States, strongly condemned those who take hostages, whatever their motives. Resolution 1991/40 asked the Secretary General, when requested by a state, to employ all means at his disposal to secure the release of hostages.

The Commission also adopted, without a vote, resolution 1991/34 on human rights in the administration of justice; resolution 1991/39 on the independence and impartiality of the judiciary, jurors and assessors, and the independence of lawyers; and resolution 1991/43 on the right to a fair trial.

The Commission adopted by consensus resolution 1991/32 on the right to freedom of expression and opinion, making reference to a preliminary report to the Subcommission on this subject. After its adoption, the United States made an explanation of position to note it opposed the portions of the preliminary report that indicated limitation of freedom of expression was permissible under certain circumstances. Finally, the Commission adopted consensus resolution 1991/37 requesting the Secretary General continue his efforts to secure the release of UN personnel held in detention and to ensure the privileges and immunities of international civil servants are fully respected. A related resolution was adopted; it asked the Secretary General to ensure that special rapporteurs, members of working groups, and others representing the Commission and its bodies be accorded the same privileges and immunities.

ECOSOC confirmed all the above resolutions at its spring

session.

General Assembly resolution 46/110 urged support for the UN Voluntary Fund for Victims of Torture; it was adopted without a vote. The subject of enforced or involuntary disappearances was addressed by General Assembly resolution 46/125,

adopted by consensus. It appealed to governments to ensure the protection of families of disappeared persons from intimidation or ill treatment. The General Assembly also addressed human rights in the administration of justice in consensus resolution 46/120, which emphasized the importance of full and effective implementation of UN norms and standards in that field.

Self-determination

The Human Rights Commission adopted a number of resolutions on the right to self-determination, a recurring agenda item.

On Afghanistan, consensus resolution 1991/4 reaffirmed the Afghan people's right to self-determination and called for urgent achievement of a comprehensive political settlement. Resolution 1991/5 concerning the Western Sahara, also adopted by consensus, welcomed the plan of the Secretary General, submitted to the Security Council, to promote a solution in that region. Decision 1991/104 on Cambodia was adopted by consensus; it stressed the importance of a comprehensive political settlement to ensure the right of self-determination to the people of Cambodia.

Resolution 1991/6 again took up the question of the right to self-determination for Palestine. Because of the highly unbalanced and inflammatory condemnation of Israel, the United States called for a vote and opposed the resolution. It was adopted by a vote of 29 to 1 (U.S.), with 12 abstentions.

The General Assembly approved two resolutions on the right to self-determination. Resolution 46/88 declared firm opposition to foreign military intervention, aggression and occupation, because these acts have resulted in suppression of the right of peoples to self-determination and of other human rights. It was approved without a vote. Resolution 46/87, primarily a condemnation of Israel and South Africa for denying the right of selfdetermination, was adopted by a vote of 113 to 22 (U.S.), with 24 abstentions.

The Commission approved by consensus resolution 1991/7 entitled "The use of mercenaries as a means to impede the exercise of the right of peoples to self-determination.” In the General Assembly, however, the United States opposed the corresponding resolution because of its allegations of the use of armed mercenaries by the Government of South Africa. Resolution 46/89 was adopted by a vote of 122 to 11 (U.S.), with 28 abstentions.