1867 PURCHASE OF ALASKA ing years, Faraday established the identity of the forces manifested in electric, galvanic, and magnetic phenomena. In the United States of America, early in the year, a motion had been made in the House to impeach President Johnson. Representative Ashley of Ohio charged the President with "usurpation of power and violation of law," by corruptly using the appointing, pardoning, and veto power. The charge was referred to the Judiciary Committee by 108 over 39 votes. By a majority of five to four, this body decided against impeachment. Thaddeus Stevens now introduced a reconstruction bill to divide the Southern States into five military districts to be administered by army officers. In amended form the bill was passed by both Houses of Congress. The President vetoed it on March 23. The President's veto was overridden by big majorities in both Houses of Congress. Under this act General Schofield took charge of a military district at Richmond, General Sickles at Columbia, General Pope at Montgomery, General Ord at Vicksburg, and General Sheridan at New Orleans. The finances of the Union Pacific Railway, running through these Territories, became one of the political scandals of this time. It was charged in Congress that the stock of the company had been placed "where it would do most good." The charge involved the Vice-President of the United States, the Republican nominee for the Vice-Presidency, the Secretary of the Treasury, Speaker Blaine, and other prominent leaders of the Republican party. Meanwhile a treaty had been approved by which the Territory of Alaska was purchased from Russia for the sum of $7,200,000. A tract of land covering 590,777,290 square miles was thus acquired. In the Cabinet differences of opinion between the President and Secretary of War, Stanton, concerning the proposed military measures of reconstruction, led at last to open JOHNSON REMOVES STANTON 1867 rupture. In August the President called upon his Secretary of War to resign his office "on public considerations of a high character." Stanton in an open letter refused to resign. President Johnson thereupon suspended Stanton, and ordered him to transmit the affairs of his office to General Grant ad interim. Stanton yielded, while protesting that he denied the right of the President under the Constitution to suspend him without the advice and consent of the Senate, according to the provisions of the recent tenure of office act. With Stanton out of the way, the President now removed General Sheridan from the military department of Louisiana and General Sickles from that of North Carolina. In the course of the autumn President Johnson issued a proclamation granting an amnesty to all persons in the South who had taken part in the late war, with the exception of the Confederate Government officers and persons convicted and in custody. On November 25, a Congressional Committee recommended by a majority of five to four that "Andrew Johnson, President of the United States, be impeached for high crime and misdemeanors." The motion for impeachment was brought forward in the House of Representatives on December 7, and was defeated by 108 over 57 votes. The civil war in Japan reached its turning point during this year. The new Shogun, finding his own support insufficient, abdicated his office and withdrew. Shortly afterward the Mikado, Komei-Tenno, died in his thirty-eighth year, leaving a young boy, Mutsuhito, as heir to the throne. A general amnesty was proclaimed. During autumn in Italy another rising in the Papal States was instigated by Garibaldi. Bands of his followers marched upon Rome. Garibaldi was arrested by order of Victor Emmanuel's government near Sienna, as he was on the point of crossing the Papal frontier. He was conveyed to the fortress of Alessandria to be confined there, but was 1867 FRENCH OCCUPY ROME soon permitted to return to his residence on the island of Caprera, under surveillance of Italian ships of war. Several armed bands of his followers were dispersed while attempting to invade the Papal territories. The Pope withdrew all his troops from the provinces with the exception of the garrisons of Civita Vecchia and Viterbo, and concentrated them in the capital. The officers in the French auxiliary force threw up their commissions, and the greatest alarm prevailed in Rome. By the end of September and early in October, swarms of Italian volunteers had crossed the frontier in different places and established themselves on Papal territory. Several conflicts occurred. The command of the raiders was bequeathed by Garibaldi to his son Menotti. On October 13 the Papal troops defeated a body of Garibaldians at Monte Librate, but the invaders soon received reenforcements and compelled the troops to retreat. Desultory fighting continued until Napoleon III despatched a French expedition to Rome to suppress the invasion. This unwelcome intervention on the part of France caused the downfall of the Ratazzi Ministry in Florence, and King Victor Emmanuel called upon General Menabrea to form a Cabinet. In the meantime, Garibaldi had slipped out of Caprera and reappeared on the scene of conflict. He succeeded in capturing Monte Rotondo, where he established his headquarters. On October 28, however, a French squadron arrived at Civita Vecchia and landed troops. Two days later the French soldiers entered Rome amid sullen silence on the part of the inhabitants. General Menabrea called upon France to withdraw her troops. Instead of that, Napoleon III proposed that the political status of the Holy See and the Kingdom of Italy should be settled by an international conference. Most of the European Powers readily accepted the French Emperor's proposal, as did the Pope. King Victor Emmanuel's troops received orders to evacuate the Papal dominions. EVENTS OF 1868 Congress Impeaches President Johnson for Violating Tenure of Office Act by Removing Stanton, Secretary of War-He is Acquitted by Margin of One Vote-Congress Reconstructs Southern States Over President's Veto-Grant is Elected President-Gladstone Becomes Prime Minister—British Expedition under Napier against Theodorus of Abyssinia-Napier Captures Magdala-Theodorus Kills Himself -Mikado Abolishes Shogunate-Imperial Troops Rout Forces of Shogun-Michael, Sovereign of Servia, is Assassinated-Milan Succeeds Him-Deaths of Rossini, the Italian Composer, and Berryer, the French Orator-Gérôme Exhibits Masterpiece-Isabella Banishes Spanish Generals-Revolutionists Bring Them Back-Revolutionists under Serrano Beat Royalists under Novaliches at AlcoleaIsabella Flees to France-Revolutionists Organize Provisional Government-Mauritius, Hawaii, and Peru and Ecuador are Devastated Respectively by Cyclone, Tidal Wave, and Earthquake. T HE dissensions between the United States Congress and President Johnson reached a turning point at the very outset of the year. The House of Rep resentatives, on January 24, commended the course of General Sheridan as Military Governor of Louisiana, and censured President Johnson for his dismissal of that officer. Ten days later the Senate refused to sanction the President's removal of Secretary Stanton from the War Office. His successor, General Grant, promptly vacated the office, and Mr. Stanton resumed his functions. After a few weeks President Johnson once more dismissed Stanton, and appointed General Lorenzo Thomas to succeed him. The Senate then declared the appointment of Thomas illegal. Stanton put Thomas under arrest. He was released on bail. The President thereupon nominated Thomas Ewing of Ohio as Secretary of War. On March 5 the Senate convened a court of impeachment, with Chase, the Chief-Justice of the Supreme Court, in the chair, and the President was summoned to appear. Benjamin F. Butler opened the case against the President. 1868 GRANT ELECTED PRESIDENT President Johnson maintained that his removal of Stanton could not be construed as a violation of the recent tenure of office act, Stanton not having been appointed by him, but by his predecessor, Abraham Lincoln. The trial lasted until the middle of May. At its conclusion 35 Senators voted for conviction and 19 for acquittal. Only by one vote had the necessary majority of two-thirds of the Senate been missed. The weary struggle between the two branches of the Government of the United States was resumed. Congress voted to readmit to the Union the seven Southern States-Arkansas, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, with North and South Carolina. Amnesty was extended to 1,000 ex-Confederate soldiers. President Johnson vetoed the measure. gress overrode this last veto by a majority of more than three to one in both Houses, and the long contest over reconstruction was closed. Con General Grant was nominated in May by the Republican Convention at Chicago, on the first ballot and without a competitor. With so popular a candidate in the field Horatio Seymour, who was nominated by the Democrats to run against Grant, had small chance of success. Grant was elected President by a majority of nearly 500,000 votes. In Great Britain this year was remarkable for the first election of a Parliament under the new system of household suffrage. The Liberals won, and Gladstone was appointed Prime Minister. A conspicuous event of the year was Great Britain's Abyssinian expedition. . As early as 1861, when Captain Cameron was appointed consul at Massowah, King Theodorus addressed a letter to Queen Victoria, expressing friendly feelings and suggesting an Abyssinian embassy to England. The British Government ignored this letter. Theodorus took revenge by imprisoning all Englishmen he could lay hold of. A British expedition was sent out from |