PANAMA DECLARES ITS INDEPENDENCE

1903

historian of his time, died on November 1. In early life he held professorships at the universities of Leipsig, Zurich, and Breslau. From 1858 until his death he was professor of ancient history at the university of Berlin. Besides his monumental "Roman History," he wrote an almost numberless array of works. In politics Mommsen was an advanced Liberal, and, while a member of the Landtag, a bitter opponent of Bismarck.

After long consideration the Colombian Senate had rejected the Panama Canal treaty with the United States on September 14, and approved on first reading a bill authorizing the Government to negotiate a new treaty. It was openly charged and tacitly accepted by all persons conversant with South American politics that the action of the Colombian Senate was simply a "strike" to gain more money, nominally for Colombia, but the usufruct of which would really be for the individuals representing the Government. Under these circumstances there was little reprobation for the high-handed measures taken almost immediately by the United States Government. Instigated by this country, on November 3 the State of Panama, that one of the United States of Colombia through which the route of the canal ran, declared its independence. A provisional government was established, and the Colombian troops in the State were peacefully deported to Cartagena, in the State of Bolivar. Several American vessels had been despatched to both sides of the Isthmus, and by the middle of the month the canal zone was thoroughly protected against any possible effort of the Colombian Government to reestablish its sovereignty.

On November 6 the United States gave instructions to our consular representatives at the Isthmus to recognize the de facto authority. The position taken by Secretary Hay was, that the United States, by its treaty rights, had paramount control of Isthmian transit, and that this right ran "with the

1903

DEATH OF HERBERT SPENCER

land," and hence we were at liberty to treat with whatever Government happened to be in assured possession. On No vember 7 Panama appointed M. Philippe Bunau-Varilla its diplomatic agent at Washington. On the following day Colombia lodged a protest with the United States Government against its recognition of the rebellious State. This protest was ignored, and on November 13 the United States practically recognized the new Republic by receiving M. BunauVarilla as its duly accredited Minister-Plenipotentiary to the United States. A few days later France accorded Panama a like recognition. On the 18th Secretary Hay and Minister Bunau-Varilla signed a treaty which gave the United States all the jurisdiction requisite for the control and operation of the canal over the district through which the water-way would run, a strip of land six miles wide, commonly known as the Canal Zone. For these privileges the United States agreed to pay the Republic of Panama a lump sum of $10,000,000, and beginning nine years later, an annual payment of $250,000. The Colombian officials were panicstricken by these quick and energetic measures. They offered the United States Government full and free control of the canal zone upon the condition that it would refuse to confirm the alliance with Panama. These offers were refused. On November 27 the United States Minister at Bogota formally notified the Colombian foreign minister of the recognition by the United States of the Republic of Panama. On December 2 the canal treaty was ratified by the Government of Panama, and on the 13th elections were ordered to take place in the coming January for delegates to a convention to form a constitution for the new Republic.

On December 8 Herbert Spencer, the English philosopher, died at the age of 83. For over fifty years Mr. Spencer devoted himself to the appalling task of revising and synthesizing the whole sphere of philosophy in accordance with the

THE IROQUOIS THEATRE FIRE

1903

latest lights, chiefly that illumination thrown on the subject by the researches of Darwin and other scientists of the school of Evolution. In the words of Richard D. Graham, Spencer "showed how evolution might account not only for the development of animal and plant life on the globe, but also for the genesis of worlds, the slow upbuilding of the earth into its present form, the grouping of human beings into races and nations, and the rise and expansion of language, and of law, of philosophy and of government, of morality and of religion."

The year ended in gloom. One of the most disastrous theatre fires that has ever been known took place during the holiday season in Chicago. The Iroquois Theatre caught fire during a performance on December 30, and nearly 600 people lost their lives in the panic that ensued. As a result stringent regulations were adopted by American cities in regard to the fireproof construction of theatres and their equipment.

If Republics are proverbially ungrateful this is not necessarily true of Republican individuals. In gratitude for the remarkable commercial prosperity of the year eighteen American citizens made benefactions of at least $1,000,000 each, amounting to a total of more than $63,860,000. Andrew Carnegie, the Steel magnate, dispensed during the year $15,878,500 to libraries and colleges for scientific research, and for a "Temple of Peace" for the permanent court of arbitration at The Hague. The gifts of John D. Rockefeller, head of the Standard Oil Company, aggregated $11,990,667. Of this $7,000,000 was for a post graduate medical college and hospital in Chicago, for the special purposes of investigating and treating tuberculosis.

The most remarkable archeological discovery of the year was the unearthing in Crete of clay tablets, which showed that the alphabet was evolved from picture writing on European soil, rather than African or Asian, 4,000 years ago.

XIXth Century-Vol. III-19

1903

DISCOVERY OF RADIUM

The most revolutionary scientific discovery of modern times was that of a new chemical element or form of energy, made during the year by Mme. Curie, a chemist of Paris, France, the wife of Pierre Curie, who is also a chemist, and assisted her in her subsequent experiments. The Curies very aptly named the discovery radium, since it has the power to project, even through iron plates and other dense material, radiations with the inconceivable velocity of 100,000 miles a second. This energy is seemingly inexhaustible. A single crystal of radium, scarcely visible to the naked eye, gives out a steady blue light for an indefinite period of time without any apparent diminution of power. This light is devoid of heat beyond the maintenance of a temperature of one and one-half degrees centigrade above that of its environment, but it imparts to other substances the property of giving off light. In this it is useful in testing precious stones, causing, for example, a true diamond to coruscate brilliantly, while not affecting a paste one at all. The effect on organic tissue, such as the human flesh, is similar to that of the Roentgen ray, to which, however, the power of the radium ray is about as 6 to 1. A minute quantity of radium sealed in a glass tube and placed near small animals, kills them in a few days. Plants rapidly wither and die exposed to the influence of the metal.

Radium is at present found most richly in pitchblende, or uranianite, a mineral containing eight or ten elements. This occurs in Saxony, Bohemia, Cornwall, Colorado, and other localities. The concentration of a ton of pitchblende is required to produce one-eighth of a gram of radium, representing a value of $275.

EVENTS OF 1904

Russia and Japan Interchange Notes Over Their Respective Interests in Manchuria and Korea-Japan Sends Virtual Ultimatum that Russia Respect Integrity of Manchuria - It is Ignored Japan Withdraws Russian Minister with Virtual Declaration of War-Admiral Togo Strikes Russian Fleet at Port Arthur and Puts the Greater Part of It Out of Action-Admiral Uriu, Convoying Troops to Chemulpo, Sinks Russian Cruiser and Gunboat-Kuroki Occupies Pingyang- Formal Declarations of War Czar Replaces Admiral Stark at Port Arthur by Makaroff-He_Sends Kuropatkin to Command Land Forces-Togo Attempts to Bottle Russian Fleet-Great Britain Sends Expedition to Tibet-It Fights Its Way to Lhasa, and Extorts Indemnity and Acknowledgment of British Suzerainty -Chinese-American Commercial Treaty-Daniel J. Sully, New York Broker, Fails in Attempt to Corner Cotton-Break-Up of British Conservative Party Over Coolie Labor in the Transvaal, Sectarian Education Act, and Preferential Tariffs, Involving Food TaxBusiness District of Baltimore is Wiped Out by Great Fire-Destructive Fires in Rochester and Toronto-Hague Tribunal Makes Great Britain, Germany, and Italy Preferred Creditors of Venezuela-United States Senate Ratifies Panama Canal and Cuban Treaties-Ruling of President Roosevelt Gives Pensions to All Civil War Veterans Over Sixty-Two-Supreme Court Sustains Decision against Northern Securities Company-French Court of Cassation Orders Dreyfus Case to be Reopened-President Loubet Strikes Pius X from His Visiting List-Pius X Protests against France Recognizing Italian Government-France Recalls Ambassador to Vatican-France Resigns Certain of Fishing Rights in Newfoundland for Territorial Concessions in Africa - Germany Wars with Hereros in Southwest Africa-Togo_Sends Squadron against Vladivostok to Draw Russian Fire-It Fails to Do so-Russian Vladivostok Squadron Ravages Japanese Coast, Destroys Shipping, and Sinks Transports - Kuroki Occupies Chinampo He Drives Russians Over Yalu and Occupies Wiju-Togo Decoys Russian Warships Over Mines--Russian Flagship is Destroyed with Admiral Makaroff and Crew-Death of Verestchagin, Painter-Skrydloff Succeeds Makaroff Kuroki Drives Zassulitch from Western Bank of Yalu-Second Japanese Army Lands Above Port Arthur -General Oku Takes Kin-chau-He Storms the Hill Nanshan-He Occupies Dalny-He Divides His Forces, and, Leaving One Part, as the Third Army, under General Nogi to Invest Port Arthur, Moves North with the Other He Routs Stackelberg at Telissu -Third Japanese Army under Nodzu Lands at Takushan-It Occupies Siuyen-Oyama is Made Japanese Commander-in-ChiefLouisiana Purchase Exhibition is Held at St. Louis-Raisuli, Moroccan Chief, Holds Perdicaris, American Citizen, for Ransom-Vigorous Action of American Government Secures Perdicaris's Release -Burning of New York Excursion Boat "General Slocum" Destroys 900 Lives-Governor-General Bobrikoff of Finland and Minister Plehve are Assassinated-In Presidential Contest in America Republicans Nominate Roosevelt and Fairbanks; Democrats, Parker and Davis-Parker Declares for Gold Standard-He Charges Republican Campaign Committee with Blackmailing CorporationsRoosevelt Repudiates the Charge Republican Candidates are Elected-France Charges Pius X with Violating Concordat-It

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