SECTION XI Physiology.

operations of plane trigonometry. These, which | them; while their fellow-students, who had no premight be comprehended within the limits of thirty vious experience in practical calculations, lagged or forty propositions, should be arranged into a kind far behind them, and seldom entered into the spirit of system, which might be divided into propositions of such subjects. I could point to several individuals relating to quadrilateral figures, triangles, circles of this description, who ultimately attained the and conic sections. The demonstrations of these highest mathematical prizes bestowed at the colshould be clear and explicit, and as simple as the leges and academies at which they attended. nature of the subject will admit, and the steps of the demonstration of each proposition should be thoroughly understood before proceeding to another.At the same time, the bearing of the truths demonstrated upon the several practical operations of geometry, and their general utility, should be distinctly pointed out as the teacher proceeds in his demonstrations; and the pupil having previously been occupied in calculations relating to geometrical figures, will be enabled to appreciate such demonstrations, and will feel a greater interest in such exercises than he would otherwise do, were he to consider them as relating merely to abstract truths which have no useful tendency. He might next proceed to the statements and calculations connected with the different cases of plane trigonometry, applying them to the mensuration of all the cases of terrestrial heights and distances, and to the determining of the distances and magnitudes of the heavenly bodies and the altitude of the lunar mountains.

This is a department of knowledge which has never yet been introduced into any seminary, as a branch of general education. It is somewhat unaccountable, and not a little inconsistent, that, while we direct the young to look abroad over the surface of the earth and survey its mountains, rivers, seas, and continents, and guide their views to the regions of the firmament, where they may contemplate the moons of Jupiter, the rings of Saturn, and thousands of luminaries placed at immeasurable distances,that, while we direct their attention to the structure and habits of quadrupeds, birds, fishes, and insects, and even to the microscopic animalculæ in a drop of water-we should never teach them to look into themselves, to consider their own corporeal structures, the numerous parts of which they are composed, the admirable functions they perform, the This is the whole course of mathematical instruc- wisdom and goodness displayed in their mechanism, tion I would deem it necessary to communicate in and the lessons of practical instruction which may the first instance ;-and, with a knowledge of the be derived from such contemplations. An intellipractical operations of geometry and trigonometry, gent writer in the "American Annals of Educaand of the principles on which they are founded, tion," has justly remarked-" The person who the pupil would be enabled to understand all the should occupy a dwelling seventy, eighty, or a hunprominent parts of useful science to which mathe- dred years, and yet be unable to tell the number of matical principles are applicable, and to apply them its apartments, or the nature and properties of any to the practical purposes of life. If he feel a peculiar of its materials, perhaps even the number of stories relish for mathematical investigations, or if his si- of which it consisted-would be thought inexcusatuation or profession in future life require an exten- bly ignorant. Yet, with the exception of medical sive knowledge of the higher departments of this men, and here and there an individual belonging study, he can easily prosecute, at his leisure, such to the other professions, is there one person in a studies to any extent, on the foundation of what he thousand who knows any thing about the elementahad previously acquired. When a young person, ry materials-the structure or even the number of of the age of twelve or fourteen, commences the apartments in the present habitation of his mind?" study of" Euclid's Elements," or any similar work, It is not because this study is either uninteresting he is at a loss to conceive what useful purpose can or unaccompanied with mental gratification, that it be served by fixing his mind on squares, parallelo- is so generally neglected; for to "know ourselves," grams and triangles, and pestering himself in de- both physically and intellectually, is one of the first monstrating their relations and proportions. After duties of man, and such knowledge has an extenencountering some difficulties, he perhaps acquires sive practical tendency, and is calculated to gratify a pretty clear conception of the demonstrations of the principle of curiosity, and to produce emotions the first and most simple propositions; but as he of admiration and pleasure. "Does it afford no proceeds in his course, the propositions become pleasure," says the writer I have now quoted, "to more complex and difficult to be conceived, and the study the functions of the stomach and liver, and steps of the demonstration more tedious and com- other organs concerned in changing a mass of beatplicated; he forgets the conclusions formerly de- en food, perhaps some of the coarser vegetables, into duced, his mind becomes bewildered, and, in too blood?-of the heart, and arteries, and veins, which many instances, he follows his preceptor in the convey this fluid, to the amount of three gallons, dark, relying more on his authoritative assertions through all parts of the body once in four minutes? than on a clear perception of the force of his demon--of the lungs, which restore the half-spoiled blood strations; his ideas become confused, and he loses to its wonted purity, as fast as it is sent into them, all relish for the study, because he cannot perceive and enable it once more to pursue a healthful the practical purposes to which such abstract specu- course through its ten thousand channels?-of lations can be applied. This, it may be affirmed, is the brain, and especially the nerves, which by the case with more than one-half of those who at their innumerable branches spread themselves over tempt the study of pure mathematics at an early every soft part of the human system (and some of age, without having previously been exercised in the harder parts) which they can possibly penetrate, the practical operations of the science. It is for this in such numbers that we can nowhere insert the reason I would recommend a short course, or out-point of the finest needle without piercing them?line of practical geometry and trigonometry before of the skin, every square inch of which contains proceeding to the demonstration of theorems, or the the mouths or extremities of a million of minute more abstract parts of mathematical science. So vessels? Is all this, I say, uninteresting? Is there far as my experience goes, I have uniformly found, no wisdom displayed in the construction of so comthat those who had been well exercised in the differ- plicated, and yet so wonderful a machine, and enent branches of mensuration, and the practical parts dowing it with the power of retaining an average of trigonometry, previous to their entering on a heat of 96 or 98 degrees, whether the surrounding course of pure mathematics, have acquired a relish atmosphere be heated to 100 degrees or cooled to for such studies, and become eminent proficients in ❘ 32, or even to a much lower point? Is there, more

over, no mental discipline involved in the study of | nature of perspiration, and the functions of the skin, physiology?"

children are permitted to wallow in dirtiness and The evils arising from ignorance of the corporeal filth, to remain moist, cold, and benumbed, and to functions, and of the circumstances by which they pass days and even weeks without being washed or are impaired, are numerous and much to be de- receiving a change of linens; by which they are, plored. From ignorance of the structure and func-sooner or later, subjected to cutaneous and inflam. tions of the digestive organs, parents, in many in- matory disorders. Ignorance of this subject has stances, allow their children to eat and drink every likewise led to those awkward attempts, particularthing they desire, and to gorge their stomachs, till ly on the part of the female sex, to remodel the hudiseased action of the organs connected with diges- man frame, as if they could improve the mechantion necessarily ensues, accompanied with the other ism and symmetry devised by Infinite Wisdom.disorders which generally follow in its train. To Hence the derangement of the physical system prothe same cause is owing the practice of administer- duced by laced stays, strait jackets, corsets, and ing to infants, cordials, elixirs, laudanum, and spi- other absurd articles of dress, by which the ribs are rituous liquors a practice in which no person will compressed, the spine bent out of its place, and the indulge who is acquainted with the laws which re- free expansion of the lungs prevented; the consegulate the functions of the corporeal frame, and quences of which are,-diseases of the breast, shortwhich has a tendency not only to injure the indivi- ness of breath, external callosities, defective digesdual, but to perpetuate a degenerated race through tion, tubercles of the lungs, and a tendency to pulsuccessive generations. From ignorance of the monary consumption. The following figures show Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

how such unnatural practices tend to distort even Magazine." Fig. 1. is an outline of the celebrated the very bones, as well as the muscular parts of the body. They are taken from No. 58, of the "Penny

statue of the Venus de Medicis, which is considered as the most beautiful and symmetrical model of tions, and much important statistical information, respecting the improvements going forward in Europe and America, in connection with the subject

Mr. Alcott." American Annals of Education" for September, 1833,-a journal which is conducted with admirable spirit by Mr. Woodbridge, and which contains a variety of valuable communica- of education.

a fine female figure. Fig. 2. is the skeleton of a similar figure, with the bones in their natural position. Fig. 3, is an outline of the figure of a modern fashionable lady, after it has been permanently remodelled by stays. Fig. 4, is the skeleton belonging to such a figure as No. 3. From these figures it appears that the size of the chest belonging to figures 3 and 4, is obviously much less than that of figures 1 and 2, and consequently, the parts which it embraces must be unnaturally compressed, to the injury of symmetry and beauty, as well as to the impeding of the vital functions.

siderable degree of useful information may in this way be obtained, especially with the assistance of a teacher who can explain, with simplicity and cler.rness, the several organs and functions of the animal system. Supposing a person knew nothing of the internal parts of the human body, it is exident, that, from such a figure as the following, an

Deltoides

Lung

of the

right side

Mediastin

Bectoralis major
Deltoides

Lung of the left side

Pericardium
Heartbag

LIVER

Right lobe left labe

Stomach

Hadder

Spleen

But it will naturally be asked, How shall we find means to communicate a knowledge of physiology in common schools? A thorough knowledge of this subject, such as a regular medical practitioner requires, cannot be communicated in such seminaries, nor would it be necessary, or even expedient, to make the attempt. Human subjects could not be "dissected before the eyes of the young, nor would it be proper to accustom them to witness such operations. A general knowledge of the parts of the human frame, of their relative positions, and of the functions they perform in the animal system, is all that is requisite to be imparted; and there are several modes by which such a view of the mechanism of the human body may be exhibited. 1. It is well known that the skill of the anatomist, combined with that of the modeller, has enabled him to construct a model or representation of the human system. This model, which has been sometimes called a mannikin, or artificial man, is formed with so much skill and ingenuity as to exhibit the principal veins and arteries, the nerves, the muscles, the lungs, liver, stomach, kidneys, and most other parts, nearly as distinctly as they appear in the real human subject. Such a model, could it idea might be obtained of the relative situations of be procured, would answer all the purposes of ge- the lungs, the heart, the diaphragm, the liver, the neral instruction. The only valid objection that gall-bladder, the pancreas, the stomach, the kidneys, could be made to its introduction would be, the ex- and various other parts, and much more so from a pense with which it would be necessarily attended. variety of separate figures delineated on a large 2. An idea of the form and position of those parts scale, and colored after nature. There would be connected with the vital functions, which are con- no necessity for exhibiting or describing any other tained within the thorax and abdomen, may be ob-parts or organs but those which are common to both tained by dissecting some of our domestic quadru- sexes, so that there would be no room for objections peds. Although the mechanism of these animals on the score of indelicacy. The female sex, howis somewhat different from that of man, yet the or- ever, as well as the male, ought to be instructed in gans contained in the cavity of the breast and ab- this science; for, as females have the physical edudomen are essentially the same, though differing in cation of children more immediately under their some minute particulars-are placed nearly in the control, it is of vast importance to the human race same relative positions, and perform the same or at large, that they should be endowed with that similar functions as in the human system. As knowledge of the functions of the human frame, hares, rabbits, and other quadrupeds are frequently which will enable them to conduct such education slaughtered for food, and as dogs and cats sometimes with intelligence and discretion. There is no derequire to be killed, opportunities might be taken of partment of science, moreover, in which a pious dissecting such animals, and showing the forms and intelligent teacher has a better opportunity of and positions of those parts which most nearly re-directing the minds of his pupils to the evidences semble those of the human subject. I recollect, when young, having received my first clear ideas of the form and position of the lungs, heart, liver, kidneys, stomach, &c. from the dissection of a cat, of which the anatomical figures I had in my power to inspect, could afford no accurate or satisfactory conception. 3. Dried preparations of certain parts of the human body-portions of the muscular parts, such as the heart, liver, &c. preserved in spirits skulls, and detached portions of the skeleton-might be occasionally procured, which might serve for the illustration of particular functions. 4. Where such objects as the above cannot be procured, some general and useful ideas on this subject may be communicated by means of large colored anatomical plates. These are found necessary to accompany every course of anatomical dissection; and, although they cannot convey the same accurate ideas which may be obtained by a direct inspection of the human subject, yet none will deny that a very con

of design, and of descanting on the wisdom and benevolence of the Creator, than when describing the mechanism of the human frame. In the various articulations of the bones, in the construction of the veinous and arterial system, in the process of respiration, in the circulation of the blood, in the muscular and nervous systems, in the motion of the heart, in the mechanism of the eye and the ear, in the construction of the spine, the hand, the skull, and other parts of this admirable machine, the Divine Wisdom and Benevolence shine conspicuous; and, when clearly exhibited to the young, must impress their minds with the truth that they are, indeed, "fearfully and wonderfully made," and that they ought to consecrate the temple of their bodies for "a habitation of God through the Spirit."

One great practical end which should always be kept in view in the study of physiology is the invigoration and improvement of the corporeal powers and functions, the preservation of health, and the

quainted with the properties and relations of the objects around us in this lower world, and the distances, magnitudes, and real motions of the celestial bodies, and the purposes for which they appear to have been created. By the same means we acquire a knowledge of the perfections of God, the principles of Natural Religion, the evidences of Divine Revelation, the improvements of art, and the discodiscover our duty to God and to our fellow-creatures, either from the light of nature or from the study of Revelation, and learn to distinguish truth from falsehood, and good from evil; and to apply the truths we thus acquire to the direction of our moral conduct, to the promotion of human happiness, and to the invigorating of our hopes of eternal felicity.

prevention of disease. For this purpose frequent instruction, illustrated by examples, should be imparted in relation to diet and regimen. The young should be instructed in the laws of the animal economy, and the sources of diseases; the practices which induce certain disorders, and the means of counteracting them; the functions of the skin, lungs, stomach, and bowels; the nature and importance of insensible perspiration, the means of regulatingveries of science. By the cultivation of reason we it, and the evils which flow from its obstruction; the rules which should be observed in bathing and swimming; the importance of pure atmospheric air to the health and vigor of the animal system, the circumstances by which it is deteriorated, and the means by which its purity may be preserved; the necessity of cleanliness, in respect to the hands, face, neck, and other parts of the body, and to the clothes, linens, blankets, sheets, and household furniture, and the rules which should be attended to for preserving the person and dwelling from filth and noxious effluvia; the articles most proper for dress, and the mode of constructing it so as not to impede the vital functions; the proper use of food and drink, and especially the moral and physical evils which flow from intemperance, and the frequent use of ardent spirits; the exercise and rest requisite for body and mind, the means by which they may be duly proportioned, and the evils which arise from immoderate exertion either of the mental or corporeal powers; the improvement of the organs of sensation, particularly the organs of vision, and the treatment requisite for preserving them in health and vigor. Instructions on these and similar topics, when occasionally illustrated by striking facts and examples, could scarcely fail to exert a powerful and beneficial influence on the minds of the young, on the families with which they are connected, on society at large, and even on succeeding generations. That such information has never yet been regularly communicated in our schools and seminaries, reflects disgrace on our scholastic arrangements, which are frequently directed to objects of far inferior importance. Till such instructions be generally communicated, in connection with other portions of useful knowledge, man will never rise to the highest dignity of his physical and intellectual nature, nor enjoy the happiness of which he is susceptible even in the present state.

It is therefore a matter of considerable importance, that, at an early period, the reasoning powers of the young be directed, both by precepts and examples, in their inquiries after truth, and guarded from the influence of false principles and fallacious reasonings, by which errors have been propagated, prejudices promoted, truth obscured, and the improvement of the human race prevented.-Were this subject to be illustrated in all its extent, it would be requisite, in the first place, to give a description and analysis of the intellectual powers, which are the means or instruments by which we are to pursue our discovery after truth. In the second place, to exhibit an arrangement and classification of the objects in nature to which these powers are applied. In the third place, to illustrate the most successful method of applying our natural powers in the investigation of truth; and lastly, to explain the best method of communicating the truth to others, when discovered. Under the first head, it would be requisite to enter into the discussion of the faculties of sensation and perception, attention, consciousness, memory, conception, abstraction, imagination, judgment, taste, the moral faculty, and other powers; or, according to the phrenological system, the knowing and reflecting faculties, the moral sentiments, and the animal propensities-which may be considered as so many different modes of the operation of mind. Under the second, a brief view might be given of the peculiar characteristics of mind and matter, and a more particular survey of the sciences, or the knowledge which men have acquired respecting the objects of human thought, which might be arranged under the three following heads-1. History, comprehending Logic may be defined to be "that art or branch sacred, prophetic, and ecclesiastical history; literaof knowledge which has for its object the investiga-ry history, including the history of philosophy and tion of truth, and the best method of communicating the arts; civil history, including particular history, it to others;" or, in other words, the art of employ-general history, memoirs, antiquities, and biograing our rational faculties in the best manner in phy; also, geography and chronology, which have searching after truth and duty on any subject. Al-been denominated the Eyes of history; natural histhough all men have essentially the same mental fa- tory, including mineralogy, botany, and general culties, yet there is a great difference in respect to zoology, meteorology, geology, and the facts which the vigor of these faculties in different individuals, relate to the heavenly bodies.-2. Philosophy, inaccording to the improvement they have received, cluding ontology, the mathematical sciences, pure and the objects to which they have been directed.-and mixed; natural and revealed theology; esthetics, The improvement of the reasoning powers, and the manner in which they have been exercised by the wise and learned in Europe, America, and other parts of the civilized world, have raised them almost as high in the scale of intelligence above the Hottentots, the African negroes, or the inhabitants of New Holland or Nootka Sound, as those savages are superior to the beasts of the forest or the fowls of heaven. The acquisition of truth, in relation to all those subjects which are connected with the present and future happiness of man, is obviously a matter of the highest importance. By the proper application of our reasoning faculty we become ac

SECTION XII.-Logic, or the Art of Reasoning.

*See Appendix, No. II.

or the science of our feelings and emotions; ethics, logic, political economy and legislation; natural philosophy, chemistry, physical astronomy, medicine, the physiology of plants, human and comparative anatomy, &c.-3. Art, including the fine arts, as poetry, oratory, painting, architecture, gardening, &c.; the liberal arts, as practical logic, practical geometry, practical chemistry, surgery, &c. and the mechanical arts, as dyeing, weaving, clock and watch making, &c. Under the third head might be illustrated the different kinds of evidence, as the evidence of intellection, of sense, of testimony, of analogy, &c. and the means by which evidence on any subject may be most successfully obtained; which would include a discussion of the modes of reason

ing by syllogism, induction, analysis, and synthesis -of the sources of error, and of the dispositions and circumstances among mankind from which errors and fallacious reasonings arise-a subject which would require to be illustrated with considerable minuteness from the facts of history, and the circumstances which exist in the present state of the human race. Under the fourth head might be included-1. A general view of the different means which men have employed for communicating their thoughts to each other.-2. An explanation of the nature of arbitrary signs, and the principles of universal grammar.-3. An enumeration and description of the different qualities of style, and the best method of constructing a discourse on any subject.

C

E

To a class of young persons, about the age of fifteen or sixteen, a popular illustration of some of the above topics might be attended with many beneficial effects, particulary in inducing upon them habits of reasoning and reflection, and guarding them against the influence of prejudices, and sophistical arguments and reasonings. Although it would evidently be injudicious and premature to attempt such discussions in primary schools, yet a judicious teacher, well acquainted with the science of mind and the nature of evidence, might occasionally illustrate certain parts of this subject, particularly in teaching the young to reason with propriety on any familar objects or incidents with which they are acquainted. It may be laid down as an axiom, that from the earliest dawn of reason children should be accustomed to exercise their reasoning faculty on every object to which their attention is directed, and Again, the sun appears to be only a few inches in taught to assign a reason for every opinion they adopt, diameter, and as flat as the face of a clock or a and every action they perform. Without troubling plate of silver. Suppose it were inquired how we them with explanations of the various forms and may determine that the sun is much larger than he moods of syllogisms, they may be taught the nature appears to be, and whether his surface be flat or of reasoning, and the force of arguments, by fami- convex, or of any other figure,-the pupil may be liar examples taken from sensible objects with which requested to search for intermediate ideas, by which they are in some measure acquainted. Logicians these points may be determined. One idea or prindefine reasoning to be that power which enables us, by ciple, which experience proves, requires to be rethe intervention of intermediate ideas, to perceive the re-cognised, that all objects appear less in size, in prolation of two ideas, or their agreement or disagreement. portion to their distance from the observer. A large This might be illustrated to the young by such ex- building, at the distance of twenty miles, appears amples as the following:-Suppose there are two to the naked eye only like a visible point; and a tables, A and B, which cannot be applied to each dog, a horse, or a man, are, at such a distance, alother, and we wish to know whether A be longer or together invisible. We find, by experience, that shorter than B; we endeavor to find an "interme- when the sun has just risen above the horizon in diate idea," or measure, namely, a three-feet rule, the morning, he appears as large as he does when and apply it, first to table A, and then to table B. on our meridian at noon-day; but it can be proved, We find that A measures thirty-six inches, coinci- that he is then nearly 4000 miles (or the half diameding exactly with the three-feet rule, and that Bter of the earth) nearer to us than when he arose measures only thirty-four inches; therefore, the inference or conclusion, at which we wished to arrive, is evident, that table A is longer than table B. Again, suppose we would know whether the space contained in the triangle C, be equal to, or greater or less than that contained in the circle E; we cannot apply these figures to each other in order to determine this point; we must therefore search for an intermediate idea which will apply to both. We fix on a square-a square foot for example, and from the length of the base, E F, and the perpendicular, FG, in the triangle C, we find the number of square feet to be 160. Having the length of the diameter of the circle, HI, we find that there are likewise 160 square feet contained within its circumference; and therefore the conclusion is evident, that the space contained within the triangle C is equal to that contained in the circle E. This example, reduced to the form of a syllogism, would stand thus: Any two figures which contain the same number of square feet are equal to one another; but the triangle C contains the same number of square feet as the circle E; therefore the space contained in the triangle C is equal to the space contained within he circle E.

in the morning; therefore, the sun must be at a great distance from us, at least several thousands of miles, otherwise he would appear much larger in the one case than in the other, just as a house or a town appears much larger when we approach within a mile of it than it does at the distance of eight or ten miles. It is known that the inhabitants of Great Britain, and those who live about the Cape of Good Hope, can see the sun at the same moment; and that he appears no larger to the one than to the other, though they are distant in a straight line more than 5000 miles from each other. We also know, from experience, that when we remove 50 or a 100 miles to the west of our usual place of residence, the sun appears, at his rising, just as large as he did before; and though we are removed from our friends several hundreds or even thousands of miles, they will tell us that the sun uniformly appears of the same size, at the same moment, as he does to us. From these and similar considerations, it appears, that the sun must be at a very considerable distance from the earth, and consequently his real magnitude must be much greater than his apparent, since all bodies appear less in size in proportion to their distance. If the distance of the sun were only