3. The exact place and time to be allotted to this instruction in the curriculum should be left to the decision of those normally responsible for such questions; but it should probably be correlated with the lessons in geography, history or civics or with moral instruction. The prominence given to various aspects of the work of the League and the International Labor Organization will naturally vary according to the type of school.

SECTION II HOW TO DEVELOP THE SPIRIT OF INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION AMONG CHILDREN, YOUNG PEOPLE AND THEIR TEACHERS

"To regard international co-operation as the normal method of conducting world affairs" implies far more than mere instruction in the history and work of the League of Nations. The form of words adopted by the assembly in its sixth ordinary session accepts the principle that co-operation is normal and strife abnormal in the life of civilized mankind and that in the world of today co-operation must be evermore widely extended. Civilization in all its principal manifestations is a record of co-operative effort from the family, the village and the workshop to the vastly more complex institutions of today. To imbue the child with a deep and lasting affection for its family and country remains today, as in former times, the first principle of sound education. But a true patriotism understands the patriotism of others; and a recognition of the necessity and omnipresence of co-operation, both within and without the State, must be emphasized in any education that is to fit young persons for modern life.

Such instruction cannot be carried out merely as a subject or part of a subject in the school curriculum. It must permeate all the child's surroundings . . A variety of methods were proposed for furthering these aims:

(a) Children's games, the exhibition of suitable pictures and films, lectures, displays of foreign handicrafts, visits to historical and artistic museums. (b) Fetes and pagents, performance of music; in fact, all appeals to the artistic sense that will encourage a mutual knowledge of different civilizations and peoples.

(c) Inter-school correspondence carried on between classes or other homogeneous groups, under the supervision of qualified teachers or leaders. This kind of correspondence might include the exchange of pictures, photographs, postage stamps, examples of work and, generally speaking, any objects suitable for the purpose. . . .

10

Further paragraphs of the 1927 Recommendation concerned the use of printed material, inclusion of this subject matter in teacher training courses, the use of resources of voluntary organizations, and administrative machinery to monitor these educational programs.

The influence of League of Nations actions upon elementary and secondary education was also assessed by Prescott, an American educator of that period; he was particularly impressed by what he called "the leverage" upon national educational authorities for the introduction of international material provided by the resolutions of the Assembly and the recommendation of the SubCommittee of Experts. Prescott also explored two themes which are echoed

clearly in the international education literature of today as well. He concluded Committee of Experts. Prescott also explored two themes which are echoed clearly in the international education literature of today as well. He concluded from a study tour which he made in 1926 to six European countries that the "spirit of the school" was more important in the process of international education than specific curriculum or practices, finding in some places that "the subject matter in the courses of study appeared very internationally minded but the instruction or atmosphere of the school influenced the children to very different sentiments." 11 He also cited the conservative force of tradition that "resists the introduction . . . of material . . . that would set children to thinking about present international relationships, that would inform them about the various solutions that have been suggested or tried . . . that would demonstrate the extreme interdependence of nations at the present time and the multiple causes of international friction. . . ." 12

Many who wished to establish a force for international education with both governmental and non-governmental support not only at the university level but in earlier phases of education as well were, of course, disappointed by the modest efforts of the League and the Committee on Intellectual Cooperation. These individuals formed a private organization, the International Bureau of Education in 1925 at Geneva; in 1929 this became an inter-governmental agency.

Other well-known educators such as Maria Montessori during the late 1930's in Europe were discussing a long-range concern for the role of education in promoting world peace. Montessori even went so far as to view the child unspoiled by education as a "teacher of peace" from whom adults could learn, and proposed the study of the structure of society and the existence of mankind as a single nation as the basis of "a science of peace."

Similar interest among educators in the United States in promoting international understanding and peace is evidenced by publications such as the 1937 yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, which was entitled International Understanding Through the Public School Curriculum.

IV. POST-WORLD WAR II EFFORTS

The establishment of UNESCO in 1945 must be regarded as the most important event in the field of international education during the post-World War II period. Its Constitution represented the culmination of several years of work by the Allied Ministers of Education meeting in exile during the war. For a time it appeared that education as such might be excluded from this Organization's mission for the same reasons of concern for domestic jurisdiction advanced at the time of the League of Nations. However, this concern did not prevail, and an entire sector of UNESCO is devoted to education. 13 Moreover, the UNESCO Constitution is permeated with the conviction that education is an indispensable element in the construction of a lasting peace. Thus its Preamble proclaims:

that since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defences of peace must be constructed;

that ignorance of each other's ways and lives has been a common cause,

throughout the history of mankind, of that suspicion and mistrust between the peoples of the world through which their differences have all too often broken into war.

that the wide diffusion of culture, and the education of humanity for justice and liberty and peace are indispensable to the dignity of man and constitute a sacred duty which all the nations must fulfill in a spirit of mutual assistance and concern

that a peace based exclusively upon the political and economic arrangements of governments would not be a peace which could secure the unanimous lasting and sincere support of the peoples of the world, and that the peace must therefore be founded, if it is not to fail, upon the intellectual and moral solidarity of mankind . . . .

The UNESCO Recommendation concerning Education for International Understanding Co-operation and Peace, and Education relating to Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms is one of a continuing set of efforts of this organization to discharge the responsibilities set forth in its Constitution. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the General Assembly in 1948, is another landmark recognition of the importance of the infusion of human rights into international education. Its Article 26 states that education "shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace."

Early in UNESCO's history (from 1947 to 1952) conferences of teachers explored how education could best contribute to international understanding. These conferences seemed to have their principal impact upon the participants; in 1952 therefore it was decided that a more systematic approach was needed. In 1953, a network of secondary schools closely associated with UNESCO was established in fifteen countries (not including the United States); these UNESCO-Associated Schools conducted projects of their own choosing with the explicit aim of increasing knowledge of world affairs and developing international understanding. Particular emphasis was placed on three themes, namely: the rights of women; the characteristics of other countries, peoples, and cultures; and the principles of human rights and their relationship to the work of the United Nations. The UNESCO Secretariat coordinated the projects and provided special services of publication and translation.

These early Associated Schools frequently utilized an historical approach to the United Nations including its peace-keeping functions. This involved dealing with the idea that different governments have the right to hold different points of view and with the role of the United Nations as a public forum for the peaceful resolution of international disputes. The problem-centered approach, focusing on the struggle against disease, the conservation of resources, and the UN's efforts in solving world problems was also used in many of the projects of the Associated Schools. 14

Every year schools in an increasing number of countries participate in this project. A 1975 report indicates 1,000 participating institutions in 63 Member

States comprising countries with different cultural traditions, stages of development, social and economic systems. The largest proportion of these institutions are seconday schools, but primary schools and teacher-training institutions also participate. The four current themes are the aims and work of the United Nations and its related agencies; human rights; other countries and cultures; man and the environment.

Until the establishment of a Liaison Committee for the Associated Schools Project in the United States in 1974, only a handful of schools in this country were members. At present this Committee is attempting to co-ordinate project participation of schools in six states. Those who are most deeply involved in the attempt to vitalize this network in the United States include American educators who have been active in promoting international education through many structures and media during the last decade. One aim is to achieve cross-fertilization of the UNESCO-Associated School experience in many nations with the American global, international, and inter-cultural education programs which have operated independently of UNESCO.

The UNESCO summary of the Associated Schools programs issued in 1971 concluded that "the majority of projects have been successful in achieving their general objectives of increasing knowledge of world affairs, giving pupils a sounder comprehension of other peoples and cultures, and developing attitudes favourable to international understanding. "15 Those who examined these projects also concluded that the impact of the programs depends to a large

extent on

the preconditions of education for international understanding. An especially important factor is the atmosphere of the school . . . The principles of human rights should be reflected in the organization and conduct of school life, in classroom methods, and in relations among teachers and students and among teachers themselves. 16

The ultimate aim of the Associated Schools Projects is not only to improve the international understanding of students in participating schools but also to insure that this aim is reflected in the curriculum and syllabi promulgated by ministries of education and other influential groups. In this regard it is also interesting to note that paragraphs 41 and 44 of the 1974 UNESCO Recommendation mention the Associated Schools without limiting responsibility for the realization of the aims of international education to these particular projects.

Another serious attempt to internationalize education within the special needs and opportunities presented by an international school is recorded in the History of the United Nations International School in New York. From its beginnings in 1947 the aim of this school for the children of UN employees was to give an international dimension to every subject area. The 1954 social studies curriculum of the school included a study of cooperation between nations of the world. The national aspect was reflected in the contribution each pupil was asked to make to the group's world picture through a study of his own country. This early attempt to focus on education regarding international cooperation, while based on laudable ideals, was dependent upon the informa

tion each child could contribute about his own country and the teachers' ability to place that information in proper perspective. It appears that in subsequent years at the UN school, courses of study dealing specifically with the United Nations were excellent; the course in world history, on the other hand, often consisted of bits and pieces of information out of context and with neither a national nor an international focus. Between 1961 and 1963 the comments of an especially active and insightful teacher indicate the strengths as well as the weaknesses of the interntional aims of the UN school program:

The continued effective existence of the U.N. is essential to our survival, and this should be emphasized. This may be decried as political indoctrination and this, of course, is what it is. We need not be ashamed of the fact. Political indoctrination is an integral part of education in every country, and so it should be in international schools. If we believe that world peace can be secured only through international organization, then we should make that belief a part of our teaching . .

The teacher in an international school should not adopt a colourless and neutral approach to controversial topics; nor should slanted and biased textbooks be withheld from the pupils. The distinguishing of truth from falsehood, the detection of bias, the weighing of evidence, the ability to select what is important and to reject the irrelevant all these are skills which can be taught within the history course

More instruction about forms and philosophies of governments and economic systems should be included in the curriculum than is usually the case in national systems of education. The object should be the realization by the pupils that many experiments in living have been made in the past and that many are co-existent in the present and that a very great amount of knowledge is required before value judgements can be made upon their respective merits. 18

The experience of the United Nations School is instructive in many respects. First, the effectiveness of internationalized curriculum depends upon the teacher. Of course, the same is true in every school, but perhaps especially in this school where curriculum was under continual revision and there was a special resource in the family and cultural backgrounds of the students. Second, there will always be forces which make the implementation of internationalized curriculum difficult concern for more traditional academic subjects, slippage between the published curriculum and classroom practice, limitation of time, difficulty of translating abstract ideas into concrete examples for young students, and the difficulty in evaluating program effectiveness. Within the American educational system in the years between 1950 and 1970, only a few communities devoted extensive resources to international education at the pre-collegiate level. Glens Falls, New York, was one of these communities. 19

In 1960 (partly in response to the launching of the Soviet Sputnik in 1957) the passage by the United States Congress of Tiltle VI of the National Defense Edcation Act provided federal funds to stimulate college and university