course by another teacher. After a four-month course of study, all classes were retested to ascertain attitude shift, and the experimental group was also tested two months later. All students were below average in intelligence and from groups of relatively low social status. The experimental social studies curriculum included topics such as the following: causes and effects of war; attempts to keep the peace, with emphasis on the League of Nations and the United Nations; illustrations of the interdependence of nations; detailed study of the life and problems of people in India, China, Japan, Holland, and Russia. Active participation in discussion was encouraged. The control group studied the same geographical areas with emphasis placed on climate, vegetation, and products. In this group, there was some additional stress on the geography of the Pacific region, and more traditional lectures were used. The experimental class increased in their tolerance of all national groups, particularly those chosen for special study. The change in this class was maintained at the testing two months later. No such change occured in the control classes which had studied the same countries using a more traditional focus. Attitudes toward the Japanese were somewhat more resistant to long-lasting change in both groups, perhaps because of films of World War II shown to these students in compulsory military training. The author's conclusion was that "schools make little contribution to international understanding unless teachers deliberately plan to foster it." 52

The reports of Williams and Elley have several common factors. First, both were conducted by teachers using curriculum plans of their own making and tailored to the special needs and abilities of their classes. Second, these curricula were expressly designed to contrast with traditional curriculum both in content and in structure of the class although the same general topics were covered. Third, although both authors are appropriately cautious about the generality of their findings, they suggest that schools must make a conscious effort to foster international understanding with explicit tasks and methods, rather than expect increased knowledge of geography or political structures to result in improved social attitudes.

53

Bellak's study is of particular interest because of its findings concerning the slippage between prescribed curriculum and its actual classroom implementation. A curriculum unit on international economic problems, with stress on the value of free trade, was taught by each of fifteen teachers. Pupils were given pre- and post-tests based on materials in the booklets they had studied. Teacher-student interactions were observed and coded. All teachers devoted a major proportion of their time to discussion related to the general topic, but there was great variation in the amount of time spent on specific sub-topics. For example, in one class, exports and imports were discussed in 23.5% of the verbal interactions; in another class, this topic occupied only .5% of the time. Free trade was discussed in 38.4% of the interactions in one class and in only 4.7% of the interactions in another. These variations existed in spite of the fact that the curriculum guides and student booklets were identical.

According to the classifications of the observers, teachers used the majority of their interactions with students to state or explain facts. The students of teachers who used these modes more than 85% of the time were less successful on the tests than those of the teachers who spent a smaller proportion of their time stating or explaining facts.

Riestra and Johnson taught a combined Spanish language and culture course to elementary school students. 54 Their data from pre- and post-tests indicated that students' attitudes became more favorable not only to the particular culture studied but also to Spanish-speaking cultures in general. Given the critical role of language in children's orientations toward other cultural groups, some sort of accompanying language study may be necessary for international and intercultural understanding to develop to the fullest extent.

IV. CONCLUSION

Designing international education programs to meet the needs and aspirations of students is facilitated by knowledge of their existing attitudes and beliefs and the processes by which these orientations may change. Research concerning students' orientations to their own and other nations, international organizations, international human rights, war, and peace has been summarized in this chapter. It shows that positive national identity is established very early and forms part of the child's perspective for viewing the activity of other nations and of his own, as well as the future of international society. The period before the age of fourteen is especially important because the child's openness to diversity in this period is more likely to foster positive international attitudes. Exaggerated support for his own national government in some cases may curtail the child's positive orientations toward other nations. In the United States negative stereotyping still exists among children, particularly with respect to Asian and African countries, and countries where wars have recently taken place. In the United States students tend to possess less knowledge about international than about national matters and to be less motivated to participate in discussion of international affairs outside the classroom than are the students of other countries.

There is relatively little research dealing with young peoples' orientations toward international organizations and almost no data concerning their ideas about the international protection of human rights. Studies of attitudes and knowledge about the UN typically conclude that children perceive it as an organization which feeds the hungry and tries to make peace. The ideas of adolescents are somewhat more sophisticated. The absence of research concerning human rights in an international perspective may result from a tendency in this country to think about human rights exclusively in terms of the U.S. Bill of Rights.

Though the attitudes of young people toward war are nearly always negative, a perspective on its causes, knowledge of ways in which it may be prevented, and skills in conflict resolution appear to be less common. In many respects

students' perspective on war is tied to other aspects of international socialization. In the child's mind justification of war may be linked with strong feelings of nationalism and a desire to preserve the nation's well-being from outside threat. Perception of other countries as hostile and power-seeking may serve as a justification for war. The awareness that people in some parts of the world are denied fundamental human rights and know of no other method than active rebellion by which to seek justice, introduces a more complex dimension into the thinking of older students. Perhaps education toward respect for human rights for all peoples of the world should be thought of as the most important component of education for peace and international understanding. Action to improve education must take place on all levels of instruction and in a variety of modes. An international or intercultural dimension should be an explicit and implicit part of classroom functioning. There appears to be no reason why the global perspective cannot be fostered through many subjects of study without detracting from the mastery of prescribed subject matter. But teachers need special preparation for these new roles which will help them to utilize not only available materials but also possibilities for meaningful interaction among students and between student and teacher. The practice of patriotic rituals and the imparting of factual material will need to be supplemented by more dynamic discussion. Materials of instruction dealing with other countries should be improved and brought up to date. Research on children's understanding of international human rights is needed to serve as the basis for materials concerned with this subject.

The UNESCO Recommendation has given the appropriate breadth of focus. In listing areas of action it has specifically recognized the importance of materials and methods "attuned to the needs and aspirations of the participating young people and adults." A new course here or a new extra-curricular project there will not even approximate the degree of understanding of other peoples of the world, their problems and aspirations which will be needed by present-day students to become well-balanced and socially effective adults.

1.

Chapter Six: FOOTNOTES

R. Remy, J. Nathan, J. Becker & J. Torney, International Learning and International Education in a Global Age, Bulletin No. 47, National Council for the Social Studies, p. 40 (NCSS, 1975).

2.

R.W. Connell, The Child's Construction of Politics (Melbourne U. Press, 1971). P. Cooper, "The Development of the Concept of War," Journal of Peace Research, vol. 2, pp. 1-17 (1965).

3.

4.

R.D. Hess & J.V. Torney, The Development of Political Attitudes in Children (Chicago: Aldine, 1967).

5. J.V. Torney, A.N. Oppenheim & R.F. Farnen, Civic Education in Ten Countries: An Empirical Study (New York: Halsted Press of John Wiley, 1975).

6. J. Piaget (with A.M. Weil), "The Development in Children of the Idea of Homeland and of Relations with Other Countries," International Social Science Bulletin, vol. 3, pp. 561-78 (1951). 7. G. Jahoda, "Children's Concepts of Nationality: A Critical Study of Piaget's Stages," Child Development, vol. 35, pp. 1081-92 (1964).

8. J.M. Jaspars, J.P. Van de Geer, H. Tajfel & N.B. Johnson, "On the development of National Attitudes," European Journal of Social Psychology, vol. 1, pp. 360-370 (1966). 9. W.E. Lambert & O. Klineberg, Children's Views of Foreign People (New York: Appleton, Century, Crofts, 1967).

14.

E. Hicks & B.K. Beyer, "Images of Africa," Journal of Negro Education, vol. 39, pp. 155-170 (1970).

15. J.P. Scott, "Critical Periods in Behavior Development," Science, vol. 138, pp. 949-58 (1962).

16.

See note 9, supra.

17. J.V. Torney, "Research on the Development of International Orientations during Childhood and Adolescence," paper presented at the American Political Science Association, September 1969.

18.

19.

See note 4, supra.

A.H. Glenn, "Elementary School Children's Trust in Nations and Acceptance of Foreign Children," paper presented at the National Council for the Social Studies, November 1970. 20. H. Targ, "Children's Orientations to International Politics," Journal of Peace Research, vol. 2, pp. 79-98 (1970).

22. M.K. Jennings & R. Niemi, The Political Character of Adolescence: The Influence of Families and Schools (Princeton University Press, 1974).

23. J.V. Torney, "The International Orientations and Knowledge of Adolescents in Nine Countries: The IEA Civic Education Survey," International Journal of Political Education, in press.

24. A.H. Passow, H. Noah, & M. Eckstein, The National Case Study: An Empirical Comparative Study of Twenty-One Educational Systems. (New York: Halstead Press of John Wiley, 1975).

25. R. Remy & J. Nathan, "The Future of Political Systems: What Young People Think,” Futures, vol. 6, pp. 463-496 (1974).

26.

C. Alger, et al., “Columbus in the World; the World in Columbus," Brief Reports 1 through 16 (Columbus, Ohio: Mershon Center, 1974).

27.

28.

29.

See note 4, supra.

See note 22, supra.

Cited in International Organizations Section, Division of International Education. Office of Education, Department of Health Education and Welfare, "Teaching About the United Nations: 1970-1974," United States Report to ECOSOC, 1975.

30.

31.

See note 23, supra.

R. Weissberg, Political Learning, Political Choice, and Democratic Citizenship (Prentice-Hall, 1974), p. 57.

32.

33.

Ibid.

J. Gallatin & J. Adelson, "Legal Guarantees of Individual Freedom: A Cross National Study of the Development of Political Thought,” Journal of Social Issues, vol. 27, p. 93, at p. 104 (1971).

34.

P. Cooper, "The Development of the Concept of War," Journal of Peace Research, vol. 2, pp. 1-17 (1965).

H. Tolley, Children and War (New York: Teachers College Press, 1973).

38.

R. Levine, Culture, Behavior, and Personality (Chicago: Aldine Publishing, 1973) at pp.

W. Morehouse, "A New Civic Literacy: American Education and Global Interdependence," Aspen Institute for Humanistic Studies, No. 3 (1975), at p. 12.

R.J. Goldstein, "Elementary School Curriculum and Political Socialization," in Massialas, Political Youth, Traditional Schools (Prentice-Hall, 1972) at pp. 26-27.

43. R. Hanvey, "An Attainable Global Perspective," (New York: Center for War/Peace Studies, 1975) at p. 18.

C.W. Maynes, Jr. "The Hungry New World and the American Ethic," Washington Post, December 1, 1974.

H.M. Williams, "Changes in Pupils' Attitudes Toward West African Negroes Following the Use of Two Different Teaching Methods," British Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 31, pp. 292-96 (1961).

W.B. Elley, "Attitude Change and Education for Understanding," Sociology of Education, vol. 37, pp. 318-25 (1964).

A. Bellak, The Language of the Classroom, (New York: Teachers College Press, 1966). M.A. Riestra & C.E. Johnson, "Changes in Attitudes of Elementary School Pupils Toward Foreign-Speaking Peoples Resulting from the Study of a Foreign Language,” Journal of Experimental Education, vol. 32, pp. 65-72 (1964).