often even in modern times been a most gracious arrangement for the care of the dead sister's children.

While polygamy was thus recognized by law and practiced by the noble characters in Israel, there was a marked tendency among religious leaders toward monogamy. This is seen in the story of Adam (Gen 2. 18-25), in the examples of Noah, Isaac, Joseph, Moses, the high priest (Lev 21. 14), Job, and, so far as we know, of the prophets. It is seen also in the apology for Abraham on account of the childlessness of Sarah (Gen 16. 2), and of Jacob on account of the deception of Laban (Gen 29. 21-30), also in the disapproval of the harem of the king (Deut 17. 17). Polygamy was not absolutely forbidden in the Christian Church, but was incompatible with the spirit of Christianity and soon entirely ceased.

§3. DIVORCE

There is no more vital question with regard to the family than that of its possible dissolution by causes other than death. Naturally, if the woman is the property of her husband, he may send her away as he would dismiss a slave. This was actually done by Abraham (Gen 21. 14), and must have been done very often with less reason than that which actuated the patriarch.

The Deuteronomic law endeavored to mitigate the evil of divorce. In the case of a woman who had been wronged and subsequently married, she could not be put away (22. 13, 19, 28, 29). And it was not expected that a man should exercise his rights of divorce unless some unseemly thing were found in the wife. In this case it was provided that he should give her "a bill of divorcement" as an indication that she was free to contract another marriage (24. 1, 2). The limitation was so vaguely expressed that it cannot be regarded as statutory, but must be considered, rather, as a prophetic injunction to husbands to realize that only conduct unbecoming a wife could justify divorce. It still

remained for the husband to decide the matter as he pleased. But in later Judaism, when the endeavor was made to enforce every detail of the law, this became a subject of grave dispute, and most diverse interpretations of the requirement were made.

It is clear that divorce was increasingly common after the exile and particularly called for the denunciation of Malachi. It was declared that Jehovah hated "putting away" and treacherous dealing with the wife of one's youth (2. 13-16).

It must be noted that the supreme crime which is the breaking of marriage did not enter into the question of divorce in Old Testament times. A woman guilty of unfaithfulness was not divorced but was put to death (Deut 22. 22; Lev 20. 10). A man guilty of unchastity was regarded as criminal only in so far as he invaded the rights of another man. His conduct could not constitute grounds for the woman to secure a divorce, for, in the nature of the case, the woman could not under any circumstances divorce her husband. This practice only came in with the GræcoRoman customs of the later times.

84. FAMILY IDEALS

The provisions of law are generally directed against the harsher phases of life. But much higher conduct than can be required by statute may often be secured by a summons to ideals.

In spite of the subordinate legal position of a woman, the place of a mother was very high in Israel (Psa 45. 16f.). Her name is always given in connection with the accession of her son as king. The mother stands with the father as the recipient of the pious honor of her children (Exod 20. 12; Lev 19. 3; Deut 5. 16). The proverbial advice indicates the importance of the mother's teaching (Prov 1. 8; 6. 20; 23. 22; 31. 1), and the description of the worthy woman (Prov 31. 1off.) shows her influence in the household and the community. The gracious influence of Mary of Naza

reth is clearly written in the gospel story, and we know that the Jews down to the present day have given beautiful honor to the mother of the family.

There were bonds of love uniting the members of the Hebrew family, which appears among much that is sordid in the patriarchal history, and in much that is unwise in David's conduct toward his children. This element of affection is particularly clear in the beautiful story of Ruth and Naomi, and is wonderfully revealed in the devotion of Hosea to his unfaithful wife. This is evident also from the use which the prophets and the psalmists make of family relations to symbolize the relations of Jehovah with his people (Psa 68. 5; 103. 13; Isa 49. 15; 54. 5-7; Jer 3. 14; 19-22; 31. 32; Hos 2. 19, 20; Mal 2. 10). And Jesus must have had a noble experience of the paternal regard of Joseph as a basis of his selection of the name of father as his supreme expression for God.

Family religion in Israel and the home as an educational institution may be considered in connection with the general subject of education.

DIRECTIONS FOR STUDY

1. What reasons existed for the supreme authority of the father in ancient times which do not have force to-day?

2. What are some of the limitations which modern law places upon paternal authority, and what is their justification?

3. Compare the practice of the marriage of daughters in Israel with that existing to-day in China and Japan, and until recently in European countries. In a wisely organized society what responsibility should rest with parents in controlling the marriage of their children?

4. Why would it be very difficult to limit the man's right of divorce in a patriarchal society? What evidence is there that the lawgivers and prophets sought to do so in the later social development of the Hebrews?

5. Read Gen 46. 5-27. Note the description of an ancient Israelitish family. How many names of sons are given? How many of daughters? What does this indicate as to the

comparative estimate in which they were held? How would you explain this? To what extent does the same idea hold in any modern society, and to what extent has it disappeared? How do you account for these facts?

6. Note the stories of Deborah (Judg 4 and 5), Ruth, Hannah (1 Sam 1 and 2), Abigail (1 Sam 25), "the great woman" of Shunem (2 Kings 4. 8-37), Esther, Judith, the Marys of the Gospels, Dorcas (Acts 9. 36ff.), Priscilla (Acts 18. 26). Consider what these imply as to the position of woman among the Hebrews.

7. What are the excellencies of the worthy woman? (Prov 31. 10-31.) What does this imply as to the estimate in which the wife was held?

8. In an ideal family how far does the question of authority arise? Where does authority properly reside?

9. What is involved in the equality of the sexes economically, morally, socially, politically? Have we reached a state of social organization in which this equality is possible? What were the social values of the patriarchal organization of the family? Consider the subject from the standpoint of Hebrew life, using the historical imagination to put yourself into that social process.

IO.

II.

What are the social values of the democratic organization of the family? Upon what conditions do they depend? 12. What are the dangers of a transition from the patriarchal organization of the family to the democratic organization? Consider how far such a change is taking place to-day in Japan, among the immigrants in America, and even among Americans themselves.

CHAPTER IV

SLAVERY AND HIRED SERVICE

81. THE ORIGIN AND CHARACTER OF ANCIENT SLAVERY SLAVERY has played a most important part in the development of civilization. Man has to learn very gradually the value of work. The modern self-discipline by which we keep ourselves to difficult tasks because we believe that the results will justify our efforts was slowly acquired by the race. And the value of work was learned first by making others work and entering into the result of their labors. Modern civilization is possible because men are willing to serve the community in various capacities in return for financial recompense. This represents a highly complex stage of culture. Ancient civilization had no such basis upon which to rest, and Egypt, Greece, Rome were possible because of the great slave populations that performed the mechanical tasks.

The origin of slavery was doubtless in the restraint of the barbarian to spare the life of his beaten enemy, and compel him to carry wood, draw water, and perform the disagreeable tasks of the camp. Ingenuity soon devised additional duties which could thus easily be performed, and a desire for additional captives who could be so employed was stimulated. Ancient warfare was often little more than robber raiding for the capture of the wealth of the stranger, and a considerable part of the booty was the strong young men and women who could be employed in the service of the conquerors. To our modern thought slavery is the most degrading position conceivable, degrading alike to the master and to the slave. Our high ideas of the rights of personality, of the dignity of the individual, give us this feeling,