spent much of his time in useless exercises. Those "traditions of the elders," which so greatly extended the already too ceremonial requirements of the law, met with the strong disapproval of Jesus. He insisted that purity is not ritualistic but moral, that not that which enters the man as food, but that which comes out of his heart as sin, was the real defilement (Mark 7. 1-23; Luke 11. 37-41).

$4. HOLINESS

The original meaning of holiness was purely physical. The fact that the word has to-day no physical connotation whatever, but is wholly ethical, is evidence of the development that has taken place in religion. Various stages of this development may be seen in the Bible itself.

When the men of Bethshemesh, who had been smitten because they looked into the ark, said, "Who is able to stand before Jehovah, this holy God?" (1 Sam 6. 20), they meant simply to speak of the physical danger of the presence of the Deity. Just as the idea obtained that uncleanness was contagious, so it was thought that holiness could be imparted by contact. The priests were not allowed to go among the people in their holy garments, lest they should make holy the people who might touch them (Ezek 44. 19). The sacrifices would have a similar effect (Lev 6. 28; Ezek 46. 20). The altar and the sacred vessels also imparted the quality of holiness (Exod 29. 37; 30. 29). It is to be remembered that this was a dangerous quality, which it was disadvantageous to the people to possess. Thus the later Levitical legislation provided that the people should be removed from the holy places, and the holy things, these being approached only by the priests, who were carefully to keep themselves ceremonially clean, that is to say, fitted to minister without danger before Jehovah. It is manifest that at this point we are in the realm where there is little difference between the holy and the unclean. Both are simply taboo.

An advance in religious appreciation is made when we find the unclean regarded as an abomination to Jehovah, while the holy is that which peculiarly belongs to him. In the various laws relating to the unclean food and to similar defilements it is indicated that Jehovah hates such things. They are not seemly for his people to eat or to touch. But in the earliest Hebrew legislation that has come down to us the idea has already been reached that Jehovah is concerned with justice and truth. His holiness is, therefore, to some extent ethically conceived. So when the sanctuary with all its furniture is set apart for his worship, and the sacrifices are offered to him, and the priests are dedicated to minister, and the special times, the Sabbath and the festivals, are set apart in his name, all these are holy and have the ethical qualities which Jehovah was conceived to possess.

The prophets advanced to a realization of Jehovah as the God of righteousness, and in so doing took up an entirely new attitude toward the institutions of religion. The sacramental idea, that religious acts are efficacious in themselves, was utterly denounced. Amos declared that Jehovah despises the very ceremonials which were regarded by the people as holy (5. 21). He did not use the word "holy," probably for the reason that it would not have been understood. Hosea in the same way insisted that Jehovah desires "kindness and not sacrifice" (6. 6). But it was Isaiah who especially presented the thought of the holiness of God which he conceived in ethical terms. In the wonderful narrative of the vision of Jehovah (6) may be clearly seen the evolution of the conception of holiness. Isaiah was in the sacred building. He saw Jehovah in his majesty. The seraphs veiled their faces as unworthy to look upon him, and cried, "Holy, holy, holy." The prophet felt the danger of the august presence: "Woe is me! for I am undone; because I am a man of unclean lips, and I dwell in the midst of a people of unclean lips; for mine eyes have seen the king, Jehovah of hosts" (v. 5). Here are the very words.

that come over from the old taboo-the divine king must not be seen; but the whole conception is ethicized, for Isaiah felt only his unworthiness. The uncleanness was not ceremonial but moral.

Isaiah delights in the phrase "the Holy One of Israel," and he means the righteous one: "Jehovah of Hosts is exalted in justice, and God the Holy One is sanctified in righteousness" (5. 16). He tells the people that they cannot enter the sanctuary because of their uncleanness, but the purification is to be moral: "Wash you, make you clean; put away the evil of your doings from before mine eyes; . . . seek justice, relieve the oppressed" (1. 16f.).

The Levitical law came later than the prophets, and organized elaborate institutions of sanctity. Into the Holy of holies no one could enter but the high priests once in the year. Into the Holy Place none but the priests could come, and so on through the various courts, until in the outermost the Gentiles were permitted. The sacrifices were given added significance, the Sabbath was to be kept with the most scrupulous care, the tithes were to be paid with exactness. The fundamental idea in these holy institutions was that all the world belonged to Jehovah, who gave it to his people on consideration that certain places should be peculiarly set apart for him, certain persons should minister to him, certain gifts and seasons should be reserved for him.

The religious ideal here was that which is always implicit in the sacramentalism of deeply religious men. They believe that by making a few things especially remindful of God, all things would become sacred. How thoroughly this was realized by the nobler spirits of later Judaism may be seen in the psalms. Psalms 15 and 24 make the conditions of acceptable worship wholly ethical. But the danger of sacramentalism is that most people will be satisfied with the externals; because a few things are very sacred, sanctity will be applied only to them, and common things will be altogether profane.

DIRECTIONS FOR STUDY

I. Read Daniel 1, Acts 10, and note how significant the food taboo was for the Jew even in later times.

2. Read Exod 19, and consider how far the idea of holiness there expressed is ethical.

3. Read Lev 10 and 22, and consider how far the ideas of holiness there expressed are ethical.

4. What food taboos are still in force among the Jews? What is the religious significance of such regulations?

5. Compare the food and disease taboos with our modern hygienic regulations. Have they anything in common?

6. Read Josh 6f., the story of the "ban" upon Jericho. The city was banned as an offering to Jehovah. It, therefore, with all that it contained became his. Hence all plunder was taboo. What, then, was the fundamental cause of the execution of Achan? How would you estimate the religious quality of the attitude manifested in the incident?

7. What superstitions are current in modern life that have the quality of the primitive taboo? What is the ethical and

religious attitude involved in such superstitions?

8. Read Psa 51, and note the difference between the emotions of the penitent sinner and those of the primitive worshiper who was afraid of the holiness of his god.

10.

9. Read Psa 96, and consider the idea of the holiness of Jehovah that is expressed in this joyous experience of worship. Read Psa 99, and note how utterly ethical the idea of holiness has become. In our modern religious experience, what do we mean by the holiness of God? How far do awe and reverence belong to the religious attitude?

CHAPTER XV

SACRIFICE AND OFFERINGS

SI. THE ORIGINAL SACRIFICES

THE most conspicuous element of ancient Semitic religion was sacrifice. This was of two kinds-the gift to the Deity and the sacrificial meal. It is difficult to say which of these was the more ancient, and we find both of them side by side in the earliest Hebrew records.

The idea of the gift was that the Deity was able to receive and to enjoy the good things which were pleasing to him. Food and drink, especially the flesh of animals, were the chief goods that men enjoy. These, therefore, they gave to their god. The blood as the mysterious seat of the life was poured out as an offering. Perhaps there was some thought that the earth drank it up. Flesh was consumed by fire, the ascending smoke seeming to carry the food upward to God (Gen 8. 21). One of the earliest records of Hebrew sacrifice is that of Gideon, who prepared a complete meal for Jehovah (Judg 6. 19-21). The flesh of the kid with unleavened cakes was laid upon the rock, upon it was poured the broth, and then the whole was consumed. In obedience to the divine command Gideon proceeded to offer a second sacrifice of a bullock burned whole upon the altar (vv. 25f.). This form of gift-sacrifice was called "the burnt offering." It was an expression of thanksgiving, as in the case of Noah (Gen 8. 20), or it might be offered in intercession in connection with the desire for divine aid, as in Samuel's sacrifice of the young lamb

Sam 7. 9), Saul's offerings before the battle (1 Sam 13. 9), David's offering at Araunah's threshing floor (2 Sam