disliked? The reason, we think, can only be, that the architects and their employers of the past age were less refined in their taste than those of the present day. The well founded reasons which we have assigned against high roofs, when they are not necessary or inevitable, were not developed in their minds, because the taste of the age did not call for such a refinement in their art. High roofs have many recommendations in point of utility, convenience, and durability, and they afford room for a conspicuous display of timber and carpentry; the principle of utility, therefore, and the influence of the carpenter, seem to have prevailed over the principle of architectural expression. In the advancement of art, the progress is from the expression of the subject, or of mere utility according to the nature of the subject, to the expression of design according to the nature of the art employed on the subject. Low and partially concealed roofs, therefore, are the consequences of a greater degree of refinement in the taste of the architects of the present day and their employers, than existed among the architects of France and their employers at the time the Tuilleries were built. Just before the Revolution this deformity of high roofs was felt as an evil in the palace of Versailles, and a small portion of the roof of that palace was lowered and concealed by a parapet during the reign of Louis XVI., a subsequent portion by Napoleon, a third by Louis XVIII., and the alterations are continued by the present king.

Another deformity in the buildings of Paris, perhaps even more glaring than in the street houses of London, consists in the stacks of chimneys. Why is it that so essential a part of every dwelling-house is almost always viewed as a deformity rather than as a beauty? Simply, because in ordinary street houses the stacks of chimneys are very seldom subjected to architectural design. A straight row of houses of the same height, or a regular composition of street houses, with all the stacks of chimneys of the same dimensions, and of the same height above the roofs, so far from being injured in effect by the chimneys, is improved by them. If the chimney tops of street buildings were as regular and uniform in distance, size, and form, as the windows of such houses commonly are, the one feature of a house would have as much architectural beauty, and be as much approved of, as the other; because they are both equally essential to habitableness. Whatever belongs to a building is capable of receiving the impression of design, and may be made to cooperate in the cultivated or refined expression of that building as a whole. Even the roof of a dwelling-house produces a better effect when partially scen, that when totally concealed; because a roof always enters

into the idea of a house. And what would a dwelling-house be without the appearance of chimneys? Possibly very handsome as an architectural composition, but certainly deficient in good taste, because it would not appear to be what it is. It is to be regretted that the architects of England have their attention so much directed to churches, public buildings, palaces, and villas, while the taste of every-day objects in architecture is left to chance. The true remedy for this evil will be found in the high cultivation of the taste of the middling and lower orders of society. If every young person were taught to draw, and persevered in drawing and in reading on the subject of pictorial composition, we should soon have a reform in street and cottage architecture. There must always be a demand before there can be a supply. In excuse for having gone so much into detail on the subject of roofs and chimney tops, we submit that it is by incidental discussions of this kind, directed to single points, that the young working gardener, for whom we chiefly write, and whose mind has not undergone a regular training, is made to comprehend and apply general principles.

The agriculture of the environs of Paris differs from that of the vale of London, in being almost entirely in aration, whereas with us it is almost entirely in grass. A greater portion of the surface for twenty miles round Paris is under wood, than is the case for the same distance round London; because in France, generally, wood as a territorial product is of more importance than in England. A part of the surface is covered with vines; but this part, the market-gardens, the nurseries, and the orchards, bear nothing like the same proportion to the general surface, that gardens, orchards, and nurseries do in the neighbourhood of London. The farms in the neighbourhood of Paris are small, generally under 50 acres, and the culture various, including coppice wood, corn, pulse, lucern, roots, and vines; those in the neighbourhood of London are considerably larger, from 50 to 300 acres, and the culture limited to very few objects, chiefly corn, grass, and roots. In both tracts there are farm gardens, in which the culture of culinary vegetables is carried on by the aid of horses or cattle, and combined with the raising of common farm produce; but the number, as well as the size, of these is much greater round London than round Paris.

The personal character of gardeners and farmers in the neighbourhoods of the two capitals remains to be compared. With the exception of a few individuals in Paris who have been regularly educated, and who, if they can be equalled,

There are

cultivators in or about London, the great majority of French gardeners and farmers are deplorably ignorant, not only in the science of their profession, but in general knowledge. Two thirds of them, we should think, can neither read nor write; they are badly clothed, have only wooden shoes in winter, and go barefooted in summer. The French spade has not a hilt, but a very long handle, and in digging is thrust in by the strength of the arms. In hard ground a pick is used; so that in neither case are shoes wanted. very few men who work in gardens in France, who, in knowledge, rank above the common country labourers; and this will not soon be otherwise, because it is not likely that there will soon be a great demand for intelligent serving gardeners in France. The French labourers, however, in another generation will become as generally enlightened as British gardeners now are, in consequence of the liberty and sense of citizenship which they at present enjoy, and of the extraordinary exertions beginning to be made by the wealthier class to spread among them useful education, and propagate and establish every where arts and manufactures. The great thing is to be able to communicate to the ignorant of every country a sense of their ignorance, and to convince them that all useful knowledge may be possessed by the poorest as well as by the richest, without interfering with the labours by which the former obtain their daily bread. It will take at least a generation to do this; but when once it is done, the poor, that is, those who are now and ever will be the great mass of society, will take care of themselves. Of this they may be certain, from reflecting on what human nature is, that, if they do not, nobody will do it for them; for no one class of society will ever effect any great good for any other class. It is with classes as with individuals, every one must help himself: God and fortune, as Franklin says, will then also lend their assistance.

The improved condition of the labouring classes of all countries, which we contemplate, when it shall once arrive in France, will give in-door employment to the wives and daughters of the country population, whom it is lamentable to see at present performing those labours in the gardens and fields which in England are only performed by men. There are various light out-of-door employments, for which women and children are well adapted, and which in moderation, in fine weather, and with broad-brimmed straw hats and good shoes and stockings, will neither injure their health nor spoil their form or complexion; points that both in a physiological and moral view ought never to be lost sight of: but at present, in

the neighbourhood of Paris, women may be seen performing the offices of masons' labourers, holding the plough, driving harrows, digging, picking, wheeling a barrow, and splitting timber for fuel. This state of things is perhaps in a great measure the result of the long and continued wars which have drained the country of the men of this class; and it is to be wished, above all other things, that the mass of this and of every other people might speedily become sufficiently enlightened to know their own power and importance in society; sufficiently united to cooperate in abolishing all slavery, mental and corporal; to put down monopolies of every kind; render trade universally free; and to resist all attempts of their rulers to lead them into wars, or to greater expense in any way than is necessary for the ends of good government. The first step to attain these objects, and to maintain them, is the establishment of representative, or what the noble Jefferson calls self, government; and to this approaches are gradually preparing in both countries, and, it may be said, throughout Europe.

The progress which the French have made in the improvement of Paris and its environs, since we first saw them in 1815, is very considerable; and what is the more gratifying, this improvement is most obvious in public works applicable to the uses of every body. Such, for example, as widening the streets, adding foot pavements, lighting by gas, the formation of commercial markets of a variety of kinds, the establishment of manufactories, &c. &c. The improvements in the environs are not quite so obvious; but, still, the number of nurseries, tea-gardens, and small villas, has increased. It is gratifying to observe that not much expense has been bestowed on the royal palaces; the present king has introduced the culture of the pine-apple in the royal forcing-ground at Versailles, but he has done little to the buildings there or elsewhere. It is well for a French king of the present day to have sagacity enough to think it unnecessary to care for his successors.

Whatever may be the difference in the wealth, prosperity, and happiness of the two countries at present, we may be certain that they are ultimately destined to become as nearly the same in these particulars as the difference in geogra phical circumstances will permit. France, we have given it as our opinion in former parts of this tour, and in the Magazine of Natural History (Vol. II. p. 75.), possesses a climate more favourable to the developement of human happiness than that of Britain. It will not, therefore, we trust, be alleged against us that any part of the preceding general

views have been influenced by prejudices against a nation that we love and esteem. In our next we shall proceed to details, commencing with the public and royal gardens.

(To be continued.)

ART. II. On the Anatomy of the Vine. By WALTER WILLIAM CAPPER, Esq., Bath.

Sir,

My attention has been engaged for some time on the anatomy of the vine, which I have found extremely interesting; particularly so, from the assistance I have derived from the use of the chemical tests. I am fearful, however, that my observations will not be deemed worthy of your notice, from the expense of inserting the number of drawings which I have necessarily made for the better explaining some particular parts; but should you think otherwise, they are much at your service. At the same time, I must confess, I should like to attract the attention of the practical gardeners to the anatomy of plants, especially the vine, that they might be convinced, when they cultivate it, that

their care and attention are bestowed on a structure which is organised, and possesses a vital principle, consequently capable of suffering from neglect, and indeed only thriving through proper treatment. I will endeavour to make my remarks so plain that they may be easily understood; for I can assure them, the prominent parts of the vine are not so difficult to comprehend as many may imagine, particularly with the assistance of the chemical tests. Perhaps I cannot illustrate the use of them better than by their application, to show a partial circulation of the sap, and also some part of the anatomy of the branch of a vine.