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after his death they became common, not only in Africa, but also in Spain, France, and Italy. Their organization, however, was less regular and systematic than in the Grecian states.

Both in the Eastern and Western churches they were, for the most part, merely provincial synods.. Ecumenical councils were of a later date under the christian emperors.

The practical effect of these councils, from the beginning, was to give increasing consideration and influence to the clergy; which continually increased until it finally ended in the full establishment of the ecclesiastical hierarchy.*

*For the sake of illustrating the manner in which these ancient councils were held, we have transcribed the following record of the third council of Carthage, held A. D. 256; or rather it is but an abstract of the debates of that council, for it was attended by no less than eighty-seven bishops, who were convened to decide whether or not baptism administered by heretics should be regarded as valid. It is found in Cyprian's Works, p. 329, ed. Baluz.

Cum in unum Carthagine convenissent Kalendis episcopi plurimi ex provincia Africa, Numidia et Mauritania, cum presbyteris et diaconis praesente etiam plebis maxima parte et lectae essent literae Jubajani ad Cyprianum factae, item Cypriani ad Jubajanum rescriptae de haereticis baptizandis, quidque postmodum Cypriano Jubajanus idem rescripserit, Cyprianus dixit: Auddistis collegae dilectissimi, quid mihi Jubanus Coepiscopus noster scripserit, consulens mediocritatem nostram de illicito et profano Haereticorum baptismo, et quid ego ei rescripserem, censens scilicet, quod semel atque iterum et saepe censuimus haereticos ad ecclesiam venientes ecclesia baptismo baptizari et sanctificari oportere. Item lectae sint nobis et aliae Jubajani literae, quibus pro sua sincera et religiosa devotione ad epistolam nostram rescribens non tantum consensit, sed etiam instructum se esse confessus, gratias egit. Superest, ut de hac re singuli quid sentiamus, proferamus, neminem judicantes, aut a jure communionis aliquem, si diversum senserit, amoventes. Neque enim quisquam nostrum episcopum se esse constituit, aut tryannico terrore ad obsequendi necessitatem collegas suos adigit, quando habeat omnis episcopus pro licentia libertatis et potestatis suae arbitrium proprium, tumque judicari ab alio non possit, quam nec ipse potest alterum judicare. Sed exspectemus universi judicium Domini Jesu Christi, qui unus et solus habet potestatem et praeponendi nos in ecclesiae suae gubernatione et de actu nostro judicandi. Caecilius a Bilta dixit: Ego unum baptisma in ecclesia solum scio et extra ecclesiam nullum. Hic erit unum, ubi spes vera et fides vera.

Castus a Sicca dixit: Qui contemta veritate praesumit consuetudinem sequi, et circa fratres invidus est et malignus, quibus veritas revelatur, aut circa Deum ingratus, cujus inspiratione ecclesia ejus instruitur.

Zosimus a Tarassa dixit: Revelatione facta veritatis cedat error veri

After the conversion of Constantine, the councils of the church fell under the influence of the Byzantine emperors; and at a still later period they submitted to the presidency and dictation of the bishop of Rome.

The celebrated council of Nicaea, A. D. 325, is distinguished as having been the first which pronounced a decision respecting a christian doctrine, or article of religious faith; as well as the first over which a temporal prince presided. It is also usually reckoned as the first general council; but it was, in fact, a council of only the Oriental church; the Spanish bishop Hosius, and two Roman presbyters, were the only ecclesiastics from the West by whom it was attended. All the particulars respecting this remarkable and important council are given by the authors who are mentioned in the index.6

The number of oecumenical or general councils is variously reckoned by different churches.

The orthodox Greck church enumerates seven, namely:

tati, quia et Petrus, qui prius circumcidebat, cessit Paulo veritatem praedicanti.

Pudencianus a Cucculi dixit: Novitas episcopatus effecit fratres dilectissimi, ut sustinerem, quid majores judicarent. Num haereses nihil habere nec posse manifestum est. Atque ita, si qui ex eis venerint baptizari, acquissime statutum est.

Item alius Lucius ab Avizia dixit: Secundum motum animi mei et Spiritus Sancti, cum sit unus Deus, et unus Christus, et una Spes, et unus Spiritus, et una ecclesia, unum debet esse baptisma.

Victor ab Octavo dixit: Quod et ipsi scitis non olim sum episcopus constitutus et ideo expectabam praecessorum consilium. Hoc itaque existimo ut, quicunque ex haeresi venerint, baptizentur.

Natilis ab Oca dixit: Tam ego praesens, quum Pompejus Sabratensis, quam etiam Dioga Leptimagnensis, qui mihi mandaverunt, corpore quidem absentes, spiritu praesentes, censemus, quod et collegae nostri, quod haeretici communicationem habere non possunt nisi ecclesiastico baptismo baptizati fuerint. Non oportet episcopos, qui vocantur ad Synodum, negligere. Sed abire et docere et doceri ad eccorrectionem ecclesiae et reliquorum. Si quis autem neglexerit, is se ipsum accusabit, praeterquam si propter intemperiem et aegritudinem non venerit.)

Cyprianus Carthagine dixit: Meam sententiam plenissime exprimit epistola, quae ad Jubajanum, collegam nostrum scripta est, haereticos secundum evangelium et apostolicam contestationem et adversarios Christi et antichristos appellatos, quando ad ecclesiam venerint, unico ecclesiae baptismo baptizandos esse, ut possint fieri de adversariis amici et de antichristis christiani.

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The church of Rome recognizes eighteen general councils, sanctioned by the pope, of which the council of Trent is the last. But Romish writers are not quite agreed upon this subject. A list set up in the Vatican, by command of Sixtus V, enumerates the following:

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It appears from this list that the councils of Pisa, A. D. 1409, of Constance, A. D. 1414, and of Basle, A. D. 1431, which are commonly regarded as general councils, are not recognized as such at Rome.

Protestants, for the most part, recognize four general councils, namely:

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This interesting portion of Christian Antiquities is passed in silence, by Augusti, Rheinwald and Siegel. But it is indispensable in order to form a just estimate of the character of the primitive Christians, and of the true spirit of their religion.

The following compilations are accordingly made from Jamieson, to whom frequent reference has been made in the progress of this work; and from an article by Prof. Stowe in the Biblical Repository for July, 1840. These representations, however, should be understood as relating to the earliest periods of the church, antecedent to the sad declensions which soon overshadowed the cloudless light in which Christianity arose upon the world.

1. OF THEIR Mode of Life.

Among the primitive disciples, Christianity made no essential difference in their relations to society and the external world, more than it does among their followers in the present day. Apart from the faith they had embraced, and the altered estimate it led them to form of the scenes and the pleasures of the world, their new views occasioned no change in their rank, their profession, or their outward circumstances in life. In general, they lived like other men around

them-speaking the same language, partaking of the same fare, observing the same intervals of labor and repose, and in everything that was honorable, pure, and of good report, conforming to the rules and the habits which custom had established. The mechanic wrought at his trade, the husbandman prosecuted the labors of the field, the merchant repaired to his shop, the soldier continued in the ranks,— men went, from day to day, and from place to place, obeying the calls of business and friendship as before; and instead of separating from their former acquaintances, or withdrawing into solitude from the avocations to which they had been bred, and by which they lived, they gave no symptoms, in any of these respects, of a change of habits, except that, being furnished with higher motives, they attended with an activity, a diligence, and fidelity greater than ever, to all the claims of society and the offices of life. In the earliest times, indeed, when persecutions were frequent and severe, there were many Christians, male and female, married and unmarried, who, justly persuaded that nothing should come in competition with their fidelity to Christ, and fearing, at the same time, their own inability to remain steadfast and immoveable amid the fiery trials by which they were assailed, resolved on abandoning for a time their place and possessions in the world, and fleeing to distant mountains and inaccessible deserts, where they spent their time in the service of God, and continued, at a distance from temptations to apostasy, the exercises of meditation and prayer. But when peace was restored, and the profession of Christianity was no longer proscribed and dangerous, this measure of prudence was no longer resorted to,-those who had found it expedient, for the preservation of their christian fidelity, to take such a step, quitted their temporary retirement: and although there were some who having come, through habit, to prefer a solitary life, remained in their adopted habitations in the wilderness, the great majority of these voluntary exiles returned to the circle of their families and friends, and mingled as before in the wonted scenes and activities of life. Indeed, it was no part of the creed of the primitive Christians, that on embracing the religion of Jesus, they were required to give up all concern in the secular business, or to become dead to the comforts and innocent enjoyments of the world.

"We are no Brahmins," says Tertullian, Apol. c. 42, 66 we are no Hindoo Fakiers, we are not eremites or hermits, who flee from life.

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