has been already mentioned. It is worthy of notice, that the Nestorians still exercise the same caution to prevent the waste of any particle of the sacred elements.

At the close of the communion the people all knelt down and received the blessing of the priest,19 after which he dismissed them, saying, Depart in peace.'

The practice of kneeling during the consecration and distribution of the elements, was introduced in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and became general at a period still later.20

1. Quality of the bread. The question whether leavened or unleavened bread should be used in the sacrament, has been the subject of a spirited dispute between the Greek and Latin churches. The former contended for the use of leavened, the latter of unleavened bread. Without attempting to follow our author through his protracted discussion of this question; suffice it to say, as the result of his investigation, that no rule was given by our Lord on this subject. It is even uncertain whether he used the unleavened bread of the passover or common bread at the institution of the supper.

The early christian writers make no mention of the use of unleavened bread in celebrating the Lord's supper.

The bread for the sacrament was supplied from the oblations which the communicants presented at the commencement of the solemnity, and was, probably, the same as that which was in common

use.

From the seventh century, the church at Rome used unleavened bread; and the church at Constantinople continued the use of common fermented bread, but the controversy between the two churches on the subject originated with Michael Cerularius, patriarch of Constantinople, in the year 1053.

Protestants regard the quality of the bread as of no importance. For the most part they discontinued, at the reformation, the use of unleavened bread. But the Lutherans still continue it.*

* Panis sit fermentatus, an azymus; vinum rubrum, an album, nihil refert. Fermentatum et vulgarem panem fuisse ante tempus Alexandri Romani

2. Form of the bread. The eucharistic bread in the church of Rome is styled the host, hostia. It consists of cakes of meal and water, made small, circular, and thin like wafers, by which name it is frequently called. These wafers have been known by various names, as panes eucharistici, sacramentales, orbiculares, tesselati, reticulati, placentae or biculares, nebula, and spuma panis, crustula farracea, coronae, panes numularii, denaria sacramentorum, etc. By the enemies of religion it has also been stigmatized with various opprobrious epithets.

The host seems to have been used in the form above mentioned since the rise of the controversy with the Greek church in 1053. The use of these thin cakes is discarded by most of the reformed churches; but retained by the Lutherans.

b) of the Wine.1

1. Color of the wine. The common wine of Palestine is of a red or dark color. Such was the wine which our Saviour used at the sacrament, as it would seem both from the nature of the case and

Episcopi, narrant historiae: qui primus azymo pane delectatus est; qua id ratione, non video, nisi ut plebis oculos novo spectaculo in admirationem traheret magis, quam ut animos proba religione institueret. Omnes objuro, qui vel levi aliquo pietatis studio tanguntur, annon evidenter perspiciant, et quanto praeclarius Dei gloria hic resplendeat, et quanto affluentior spiritualis consolationis suavitas ad fideles transeat, quam in istis frigidis et histrionicis nugis, quae nullum alium usum afferunt, nisi ut stupentis populi sensum fallunt. Calvin. Inst. Chr. Rel. lib. iv. c. 17, § 43.-Panis azymus ne sit an fermentatus, non magnopere putamus laborandum. Beza. Ep. 12, ad Anglic. Eccl. Patres.-Odiosa excitata est contentio super materia coenae dominicae, contendentibus his, pane azymo, aliis vero fermentato esse utendum. Atqui apud veteres quandam de his nullae movebantur rixae. Nam ecclesiae pro libertate sua utebantur utroque. Videtur quidem Dominus in prima illa coena usus esse pane azymo, in mensa ex veteri more celebrandi Paschatis relicto, unde non paucae ecclesiae infermentato pane usae sunt, quae tamen fermentato pane utentes, non damnabant haereseos. Bullinger. ap. Gerhard. Loc. Theol. x.-Fermentati aeque ac azymi panis in Eucharistia liber usus est, dum modo ne alteruter ceu necessarius et nullo casu mutabilis praescribatur. Uterque analogiam quandam fundit: ille nutritionis plenioris; hic sinceritatis et sanctitatis, ad quam Eucharistia obligat, majoris. Nostrae ecclesiae usum azymi a Zuinglio, externorum ejusmodi plane incurioso et interiorum atque spiritualium tenacissimo, retentum, ceu fractioni et distributioni opportuniorem, ut mutarent, hactenus induci non potuerunt, novandi periculum metuentes. Heidegger. Corp. Theol. Christ. Loc. xxv. § 78.

from the declaration this is my blood, as well as from the scriptural expression, the blood of the grape, etc. The color of the wine was not considered as essential, but the red wines were generally prefer. red to the white.2

Of the mixture of wine with water. The ancient churches universally mixed water with the sacramental wine. This mixture was called xouuu, from xɛpávvyμi, misceo. By the Latin authors it was styled mixtum, temperatum. Some speak of this mixing of wine with water as an express precept of Christ.3 Others rely upon precedent, and early usage for authority. But whatever may have been the origin of this custom it was abundantly authorized by the canons of the church.5

The Armenians used wine alone; others used only water; but both were condemned as heretics.

Protestants, at the reformation, abandoned this ancient rite of the church, not as being unlawful or injurious, but because it was maintained by the Catholics merely on the ground of ecclesiastical authority.

The proportion of water mixed with the wine varied at different times. Sometimes it was one fourth; at others, one third. The Western church mixed cold water only. The Greek church first mixed cold water, and afterwards added warm water, just before the distribution. This was said to be emblematical, at once of the fire of the Holy Spirit, and of the water which flowed from our Savior's side.6

Various other idle questions relating to the sacred elements at times agitated the church; and various superstitious ceremonies were observed by different branches of the church, which it were superfluous to mention in detail. With some it was a question of what material the bread should be made--whether of the flour of wheat, or barley, or of that of some other grain. Others mingled salt and oil with the bread. Some substituted water for wine. Others used mingled wine. Indeed, this sacred ordinance of the Lord's supper, in itself so simple and so impressive, has been dishonored, at times, by casuistical discussions too ridiculous to be gravely related; and desecrated by rites too horrible to be mentioned.

10. CONSECRATION OF THE ELEMENTS.

The consecration of the elements was at a very early period performed with great formality, and with a set form of words and prayer, which were the subject of frequent discussion in different churches. It would be foreign to the design of this work to enumerate the various controversies that have prevailed on this subject. In general, the church has agreed that the elements should be set apart to a sacramental use by prayer. The words given in the original institution were uniformly included in the consecrating prayer. Some contended that a personal invocation of the Holy Spirit was essential to a due consecration of the elements. But all agreed in supplicating the graces of the Spirit to sanctify these gifts to them, and to make them partakers of the body and blood of Christ, i. e. of the benefits of his death. Several of the authors who have treated of this general subject are enumerated in the index.1

Elevation of the host. As early, perhaps, as the third or fourth century, it became customary in the Eastern church to exhibit the consecrated elements to the people, to excite their veneration for the sacred mysteries of the sacrament. In the middle ages the host became the subject of adoration, under the notion that the elements, by transubstantiation, became the body and blood of Christ. This theological dogma was introduced into Gaul in the twelfth century, and into Germany in the thirteenth.2

11. DISTRIBUTION OF THE Elements.1

Both the bread and the wine were universally administered to the clergy and laity alike until about the twelfth century, when the cup began, in the Western church, gradually to be withdrawn from the laity, on account of the disorders to which the use of it had given rise.* The Greek retains substantially the ancient custom. Protestants universally concur in administering both elements,

Certum est, omnes passim clericos et laicos viros et mulieres, sub utraque specie sacra mysteria antiquitus sumsisse, cum solemni eorum celebrationi aderant et offerebant et de oblatis participabant. Extra sacrificium vero et extra ecclesiam semper et ubique communio sub una specie in usu fuit. Primae parti assertionis consentiunt omnes, tam catholici quam secta

The strictest order was observed in distributing the elements to the different ranks of people. The clergy first received them, and the others in a regular succession. This rule is disregarded by protestants, with the exception of the English episcopal church.

*

The communicants received the elements at the altar. The council of Laodicea, however, admitted only the clergy to the altar.2 The laity, and communicants of the other sex, from this time, usually received the elements from without the chancel.

rii; nec eam negare potest, qui vel levissima rerum ecclesiasticarum notitia imbutus sit. Semper enim et ubique ab ecclesiae primordiis usque ad saeculum XII sub specie panis et vini communicarunt fideles; coepitque paulatim ejus saeculi initio usus calicis obsolescere, plerisque episcopis eum populo intercidentibus ob periculum irreverentiae et effusionis, quod inevitabile erat aucta fidelium multitudine, in qua deesse non poterant minus cauti et attenti et parum religiosi... Paulatim introducta est communio sub sola specie panis, posteaquam intolerandi abusus religiosos antistites ad abrogandum communem calicis usum induxerunt. Moribus enim immutatis leges quoque mutandae sunt, quae aliquando utiles atque optimae fuerunt. Haec autem mutatio facta est primum a diversis episcopis in suis ecclesiis, deinde a Synodo Constantiensi canonica sanctione pro omnibus stabilita. Bona Rer. Liturg. lib. ii. c. 18, § 1. — Ab ecclesiae exordio ad saeculum usque XII eucharistiam etiam laicis sub utraque specie in publico solemnique eucharistiae ministerio fuisse ministratam (etsi non semper et necessario), nullus est inter catholicos qui ignorat, si vel levissima rerum ecclesiasticarum notitia sit imbutus. Verum crescente indies fidelium numero, cum sanguis non raro a populo minus cauto et parum religioso fuerit effusus, primum introducta fuit consuetudo, ut ope tubuli vel fistulae cujusdam sumeretur, quae fundo calicis, teste Lindano, quandoque fuit ferruminata, ne ob incultioris populi rusticitatem tam facile effundi posset. Ast cum et haec praxis sua haberet incommoda, coeperunt sacerdotes populo panem eucharisticam pretioso sanguine intinctum distribuere: qui mos saeculo XI et XII multis ecclesiis fuit familiaris. Verum cum illum reprobarint ecclesiae aliae, nec inconvenientiis satis iretur obviam, calicis usus saec. XIII semper semperque minui, et tandem saec. XIV fere generaliter obsolescere coepit, donec saec. XV post exortam Hussitarum haeresin calix publico ecclesiae decreto Laicis omnibus fuerit sublatus. Krazer de Liturg. p. 567.

* Ordo communionis hic erat, ut primo quidem Celebrans seipsum communicaret, deinde Episcopos, si qui aderant, vel Presbyteros simul cum eo synaxin agentes: tum Diaconos, Subdiaconos et Clericos, Monachos, Diaconissas et sacras Virgines; novissime populum adjuvantibus Presbyteris, primum viros, postea mulieres. Idem in calicis distributione servabatur, nisi quod Presbyteri per se illum sumebant, Diaconi a Presbyteris, reliqui a Diaconis, ut ex Ordine Romano et ex Graecorum Euchologio constat. Bona Rer. Liturg. lib. ii. c. 17, p. 858.