Tertullian also insists upon the reading of the Scriptures both of the Old and New Testament as an important part of public worship.3

Both Tertullian and Cyprian speak of the Reader, as an officer in the church, the latter of whom particularly describes the ordination of two Readers to this office.4

The Apostolical Constitutions enjoin the reading of the Scriptures as the most important part of public worship. And Origen and Chrysostom insist upon this as the foundation of all correct religious service. To these authorities, again, may be added those of various councils, on the same subject.

As a general rule none but the books which were received as canonical were allowed to be read in public worship. The reading of other books in private was recommended for personal edification, but not, like the Scriptures, as being of divine authority. As in different provinces the church was divided in opinion respecting the true character of certain books, so they differed in regard to the propriety of permitting the same to be read in religious worship. The apocryphal books of the Old Testament, and the Antilegomena of the New, were chiefly the subject of dispute. The diligent perusal of the apocryphal books was recommended to catechumens, but their authority was seldom or never allowed in doctrinal discussions. These books were held in higher repute by the church in Africa than by any other.

The controversy relating to the Antilegomena, in a great measure ceased in the fourth century. The authority of the Apocalypse was, however, still controverted; and the churches of Constantinople, Antioch, and others, continued to refuse it a place in the sacred canon. Ephraim of Syria, Athanasius, Cyril of Alexandria, Pseudo-Dionysius, and Leontius of Byzantium, were apparently the first to remove the prejudice against this book."

No distinction was made between the books of the Old and New Testament, but both were regarded as of equal authority, and in religious worship selections from each were read in connection. On sacramental occasions, however, the Romish church, in the primitive ages of Christianity, omitted the lessons from the Old Testament and the Psalms, and confined themselves to the Gospels and the Epistles. Whilst both the Jewish and the christian sabbath continued to be observed, it was customary on the former occasion to read the Old Testament; and on the latter, the New.10

The controverted portions of Scripture above mentioned, and other religious works, were frequently read in public on certain occasions ; such as the Epistles of Peter, the Apocalypse, the Doctrines of the Apostles, the Shepherd of Hermas, the first epistle of Clemens Romanus to the Corinthians, the Homilies of the celebrated fathers, Public Symbols and Rules of Faith, and Memoirs of Martyrs and Saints. 11

§2. Of the Order in which the Scriptures were read.

At first there was no established order for the reading of them. Before the canon of the New Testament was completed, the Law and the Prophets of the Jewish Scriptures were read according to their divisions. Afterwards the bishop appointed the lessons. Even as late as the fourth and fifth centuries, instances occur of such appointments by the bishop. In all matters pertaining to the church, usage had a great influence. The traditions of the apostles, and especially usages established by them, were very carefully observed. Every innovation was regarded with jealousy proportionate to the antiquity of the usage which it would supersede.

The earliest division of the New Testament was into the Gospels and the Apostles, corresponding to the Law and the Prophets of the Jewish Scriptures. This division appears in the writings of Tertullian and Irenaeus, and must, accordingly, have been anterior to their time. The reading was directed according to this division, one lesson from each being read alternately. Between the reading of these, Psalms were sung, or selections from the Old Testament were read. When there was nothing peculiar to direct the reading, the Scriptures were read consecutively according to their established order; but this order was interrupted on their festivals, and other occasions.3 At Easter, the account of the resurrection was read from each of the evangelists successively. The season of Pentecost, from Easter to Whitsuntide, was set apart for the reading of the Acts of the Apostles.5 The Western church connected with this the reading of the Epistles and of the Apocalypse. During Lent, Genesis was read; and, as early as the third century, the book of Job was read in Passion-Week. In a word, though we have no complete order of the lessons read, through the year, it is to be presumed that

the reading was directed by an established rule and plan, especially on all the principal festivals and solemnities of the church.

At the close of the lesson, the assembly kneeled and prayed for pardon of the sins of which they might have been guilty in the reading; saying, 'Lord have mercy upon us.' Instead of this prayer, however, other forms were frequently used; such as, Thus saith the Lord,' etc. The reading at the burial service, was ended with the exclamation, 'Blessed are the dead that die in the Lord.'

3. MODE OF DESIGNATING THE DIVISIONS AND Lessons.

In many manuscripts, these divisions are denoted by certain marks like the masoretic notes in the Hebrew Scriptures. These, however, are not to be regarded as of necessity the most ancient divisions, for none of the manuscripts themselves have, in the opinion of critics, a higher antiquity than the fifth and sixth centuries, and most of them are of an origin much later. But it is worthy of remark that the ancient vesions, which date back to a much higher antiquity than any manuscripts now extant, and from which, almost without exception, the lessons were read are also divided in the same manner. Such for example are the divisions of the Syriac Peshito. From all which, it is probable that these divisions were made as early as the second century. According to this method, the New Testament was divided into two kinds of chapters, some longer, and some shorter. The divisions however were not uniform in the different churches, and were subject to revision from time to time.1

To prevent misunderstanding, it was customary to refer to texts of Scripture by quoting a few words of the passage in question, or by a description of it, thus: As it is said in the parable of the sower, -or, As it is written in the passage relating to the woman that had an issue, etc.

These divisions continued to be general in the Eastern and Western churches until the thirteenth century, when cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro introduced the chapters now in use. The divisions into verses first appeared in an edition of the Scriptures, published by Robert Stephens, A. D. 1551.

4. OF THE MANNER IN WHICH THE SCRIPTURES WERE READ, AND

OF OTHER EXERCISES IN CONNECTION.

Certain portions of the Scriptures, as has been already remarked, were sung, others were recited, or read. The Psalms were uniformly sung, and from the time of Gregory the Great, the same was true of the gospels, and the epistles. All other parts of the Scriptures were read; but the mode of reading was very unlike that in common use; it was indeed a recitative or chant; each syllable was uttered with a measured cadence and modulation, in a style and manner midway between that of singing and ordinary reading. In the East especially was this art of chanting greatly cultivated; and the Koran to this day is thus read.

It was a prevailing sentiment of the Oriental church, that the words of the Most High ought to be pronounced in a higher and more joyful strain than that of common conversation and reading. On this interesting point it is to be regretted that so little is known. The ancient art of chanting the Scriptures was perpetuated by tradition, and only some slight traces of it can now be observed in the Greek, Roman, and Protestant churches.

Augustine, the great rhetorician and musician of the ancient church, contends earnestly for an easy, simple, and unstudied style of psalmody, and commends highly the singing of Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, which more resembled the performance of a reader than of a singer. In accordance with this author, the approved style of conducting the services of the church seems to have been to conform the exercise of singing as nearly as possible to that of reading; and the reading, to that of singing. The style was much the same, both in the Jewish synagogue and the Greek church. In both, the rehearsals were so rapid, that it would be difficult to determine whether it most resembled that of singing, or of reading.

The reading was begun and closed with a set form. The reader, according to Cyprian, saluted the audience by saying, ' Peace be with you. This prerogative was afterwards denied to the reader, as belonging exclusively to the presbyter or bishop. Then again, it became the usual salutation at the opening of public worship, and before the sermon.

Before the meeting began, the deacon enjoined silence, and often

6

called aloud again, 'nooσzбμev, attendamus, attention! Then the reader proceeded saying, 'Thus saith the Lord in the lesson from the Old Testament, or from the gospels,' etc., or again, 'Beloved brethren, in the epistles it is written.' This was said to awaken attention and veneration for the word read.3

At the close of the lesson, the people responded frequently if not uniformly, by saying,Amen.' The purport of which was, according to Alexander Halesius, God grant us to continue steadfast in the faith.' Or they said, 'We thank thee, Lord ;' 'We thank thee, O Christ,' for the previous word. Such abuses finally arose from this custom, that the people were forbidden to join in the response, and the minister closed the reading of the epistles by saying, 'Blessed be God;' and that of the evangelists by saying, 'Glory be to thee, O Lord.'4

Whenever the deacon, presbyter, or bishop performed the office of reader, he introduced the service by a form which was, substantially, the same as that which is still observed in the Episcopal service.

At first the reading was performed from the ambo, a pulpit or desk, prepared for the purpose; afterwards the reading was from the pulpit, with the exception of that of the gospels and the epistles which, out of reverence for these parts of Scripture, were rehearsed near the altar; the former on the right hand, and the latter on the left, of the altar. It was the duty of the subdeacon to read or chant the epistles; and of the deacon to rehearse the gospels.

The reader was at all times required to stand, in the discharge of his office; the people preserved the same attitude in the rehearsal of the Psalms, and the reading of the lessons from the gospels and the epistles at the celebration of their festivals. Cyprian represents this to have been, on all occasions, the custom in Africa. The Apostolical Constitutions recommend both the clergy and the people to stand in the reading of the gospels.5 Augustine urges all who are lame, or afflicted with any infirmity, so that they cannot conveniently stand, to sit and reverently listen to the word of God." But it was a general rule of the ancient church, which has at all times been observed, and still is to some extent, that the hearers sat during the ordinary reading of the Scriptures, and arose when the gospels were recited. If in the delivery of a sermon the preacher introduced a passage from the gospels, the assembly immediately