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The former object can be effected by an acid which will corrode the stone, and take off its fine polish, and make it capable of receiving the water.

Any greasy substance is capable of giving impression upon stone, whether the lines be made with a pencil or with greasy ink; or otherwise the ground of a drawing may be covered with a black greasy mixture, leaving the lines in white.

Hence result two distinct processes: -The engraving by tracing, produced by the line of the pencil or brush dipped in the greasy ink; and the engraving by dots or lines, as is done on wood or copper.

It is easy to get impressions of prints without any reversing, by transposing on the stone a drawing traced on paper with the prepared ink.

From these observations we shall conclude that certain lythographical processes differ entirely from those of engravings; and, as they partly depend on a play of affinities and repulsions, produced by substances of different natures, it is possible by varying them we may at length succeed in producing very unexpected effects.

Lythographic Process, or Method of Printing with Stone, invented in Germany. All kinds of close calcareous stone of an even and fine grain, which are capable of taking a good polish with pumice-stone, and having the quality of absorbing water, may be used for lythography.

These stones are found in many departments of France, and amongst beds of calcareous stones, in the mountains which separate Ruffee from Argoulemè: these are very proper for this kind of work.

Ink.-To compose the ink, heat a glazed earthen vessel over the fire: when it is hot, introduce one part by weight of white Marseilles soap, and as much mastic in grains; melt these ingredients and mix them carefully; then incorporate five parts by weight of shell lac, and continue to stir it: to mix the whole, drop in by degrees a solution of one part of caustic alkali in five times its bulk of water. Make this addition with caution; because, if the ley is added all at once, the liquor would froth up and run over the edges of the vessel.

When the mixture of these substances

is accomplished by a moderate heat and frequent stirring, a necessary quantity of lamp-black is to be added; and immediately after put in a sufficient quantity of water to make the ink liquid and proper for writing.

Drawing.-This ink is used to draw on the stone in the same manner as on paper, either with a pen or pencil; when the drawing on the stone is quite dry, and an impression is desired, the surface of the stone is wetted with a solution of nitric acid, in the proportion of fifty to one of water; this must be done with a soft sponge, taking care not to make a friction on the drawing.

The wetting must be repeated as soon as the stone appears dry; it makes an effervescence, and when that ceases the stone is to be carefully and gently rinsed with clean water.

Printing.-While the stone is still moist, it should be passed over with the printer's ball charged with ink, which will only adhere to those parts which are not wetted. A sheet of paper properly prepared for printing is then spread on the stone, and the whole submitted to the press, or passed through a roller.

To preserve the drawing on the stone from dust, if not in immediate use, a solution of gum arabic is passed over it, which can be removed by a little water when the stone is wanted again.

Instead of ink, they sometimes make use of chalk crayons for drawing upon the stone or upon paper, from which a counter-proof is taken upon the stone. The crayons are made in the following manner:—

Three parts of soap, two parts of tallow, and one part of wax, are all dissolved together in an earthen vessel. When all is well mixed, a sufficient portion of lamp-black, called Frankfort black, will give it an intense colour; the mixture is poured into moulds, where it must remain till quite cold, when it will become consistent, and proper to be used as chalk pencils.

Remarks on the tails of Comets.—A series of papers by M. Flaugergues, has been lately published in the Journal de Physique, on the tails of comets, in which he examines in detail the various hypotheses that have been proposed to account for them, but conceives them

432

After taking a all to be inadequate. short review of the opinions entertained on this subject by the ancients, and the earlier of the moderns, he examines more particularly those of Kepler and Descartes, and finally comes to that of Newton. This great philosopher conjectured that the tails of comets were composed of an extremely rare vapour, which proceeded from their nucleus, generated by the great heat which these bodies acquire when they approach the sun. He formed a calculation of the degree of heat which the comet of 1680 would experience in its perihelion; and he estimated it at a temperature 2000 times greater than the heat of red-hot iron.

some comets

To this hypothesis M. Flaugergues objects, that on account of the rapidity of the motion of comets, it is very doubtful whether they can acquire adegree of heat nearly equal to that assigned to them by Newton. Besides, it is remarked that the tails of comets are by no means in proportion to their proximity to the sun; which have approached very near the sun having had very little of this appearance, while others have had large tails, although they never came very near the sun in any part of their course. Another objection against the hypothesis is, that the centrifugal force which is produced by the motion of the comet in a curve round the sun, being common to the comet and to the vapour which is supposed to form the tail, cannot tend in any degree to detach the comet and the vapour from each other. It is further urged that the greatest part of the matter which composes the tail of a comet ought, after it has passed its perihelion, to follow after the comet in the direction of its motion, and not precede it, as is always the case. the matter which forms the tail of a comet, being surrounded with matter which is more dense, and which, consequently, ought to reflect light more strongly, the tail ought not to be distinguished by its brilliancy from the other parts of space. As, according to the hypothesis of Newton, the vapour which forms the tail of a comet is elevated from the nucleus because it has less specific gravity than the medium with which it is surrounded, the lateral motion of the tail should be entirely destroyed by the resistance of this me

Again,

dium; the matter of the tail, not being
able to follow the comet, would be al-
ways left behind, and we should not see
the tail after the perihelion precede the
comet, as is always the case.

RIO DI JANEIRO.

From Morier's Second Work on Persia. We passed a fortnight at Rio di Janeiro, in the various employments of public visits and public dinners; and in the examination of the more curious objects in the town and its environs. The place is large and well built for a colonial town, possessing several handsome churches and large monasteries. It ought, therefore, to afford a much better residence to the prince regent than the mean palace which he at present inhabits. It is not fortified, but has several detached works to protect its harbour; the most considerable of which is the castle of Santa Cruz, at the entrance, and a smaller castle on an island nearer the anchorage abreast of the town. Over the town on an eminence, is a fortification called the citadel; and another on the Isola das Cabros: however, nothing appeared sufficiently formidable to save the town from the dangers of a bombardment from the sea. A great quantity of fruit is produced in the gardens around the city, and much is also brought from the villages. Its oranges are highly esteemed; some of which, containing within them an incipient orange, were sent as a present from the prince regent to the ambassadors. They have all the tropical fruits here: but the mango and the pine-apple are said to be inferior to those of the East-Indies. Meat and poultry are dear; and we had great difficulty in recruiting our sea stock of the latter. Black pigs were to be seen in great abundance; and we observed a race of disgusting looking dogs, without hair, with a black skin, long body, long muzzle, short and crooked legs, and a long curling tail,— ranging about through all the filth of the streets, and apparently without masters.

Indeed, after England, we found the filth of St. Sebastian, and its inhabitants, quite disgusting. Even the Persians could exult; for, with great truth, they said that their towns were clean to what they saw here. It must, however, be allowed, that this is greatly owing to the negro community, who are

so much more numerous than the other classes; and who in certain emergencies, have scarcely a restriction beyond that of the brute creation. Of this we could too well judge, because the Campo di Lampedosa, the large square that was situated before our house, was so constantly infested by them, at all hours of the day, that guards were placed to keep them at a distance.

During the time we were at the Brazils. the slave trade was in its full vigour; and a visit to the slave market impressed us more with the iniquity of this traffic, than any thing that could be said or written on the subject. On each side of the street where the market was held, were large rooms, in which the negroes were kept; and during the day, they were seen in melancholy groups, waiting to be delivered from the hands of the trader, whose dreadful economy might be traced in their persons, which, at that time, were little better than skeletons. If such were their state on shore, with the advantages of air and space, what must have been their condition on board the ship that brought them hither? It is not unfrequent that slaves escape to the woods; where they are almost as frequently retaken. When this is the case, they have an iron collar put about their necks, with a long hooked arm extending from it, to impede their progress through the woods, in case they should abscond a second time. Yet amidst all this misery, it was pleasing to observe the many negroes who frequented the churches; and to see them, in form and profession at least, making a part of a christian congregation.

We saw few of the aborigines, for they shun, rather than court, their rulers. Those we saw were of a low stature, of a coppery red colour, with jetblack hair, high cheek-bones, turnedup noses, and broad unexpressive faces. The queen of a tribe, said to be cannibals that bordered on the Portuguese possessions, was shown to us: her countenance was terrific. She was a prisoner, and attempts were made to humanize her; but hitherto, we were assured, without much success. The proportion of blacks to pure European whites, at St. Sebastian, is as nine to one: they have, however, so intermarried, that there are complexions to be

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found of all tints, from downright black to dirty white brown.

NOISES OF A PERSIAN CITY. The noises that issued from the adjoining houses were quite characteristic of Persian domestic life. In my immediate vicinity lived an old morose Persian, who daily quarrelled with his women; and I could distinguish the voice of one particular female, whose answers made in a taunting and querulous tone, did not fail to throw him into passions so violent, that they generally terminated in blows, the noise of which, accompanied by corresponding lamentation, I could distinctly hear.

Then, bordering on the garden wall, scarce twenty yards from where I usually sat, was a society of women, five or six in number, the wives and slaves of a mussulman, who were either dissolved in tears, sobbing aloud like children, or entranced in the most indecent and outrageous merriment. Sometimes they sang in the loudest tone, accompanied by a tambourine; and then they quarrelled amongst themselves, using every now and then expressions of no ordinary indelicacy. Accident once gave me a view into their yard, where I saw three women surrounded by children, seated on the bare stones, smoking the kaleoon. They wore a large black silk handkerchief round their heads, a shift which descended as low as the middle, a pair of loose trowsers, and green high-heeled slippers; and this, I believe, may be considered as a sketch of every Persian woman's dress within the harem, in hot weather.

But there are noises peculiar to every city and country; and none are more distinct and characteristic than those in Persia. First at the dawn of day, the muezzins are heard in a great variety of tones, calling the people to prayers from the tops of the mosques; these are mixed with the sounds of cow-horns, blown by the keepers of the hummums, to inform the women, who bathe before the men, that the baths are heated, and ready for their reception. The cowhorns set all the dogs in the city howling in a frightful manner. The asses of the town generally beginning to bray about the same time, are answered by all the asses in the neighbourhood; a thousand cocks then intrude their shrill

voices, which, with the other subsidiary noises of persons calling to each other, knocking at doors, cries of children, complete a din very unusual to the ears of an European. In the summer season, as the operations of domestic life are mostly performed in the open air, every noise is heard. At night, all sleep on the tops of their houses, their beds being spread upon their terraces, without any other covering over their heads than the vault of heaven. The poor seldom have a screen to keep them from the gaze of passengers; and as we generally rode out on horse-back at a very early hour, we perceived, on the tops of the houses, people either still in bed, or just getting up, and certainly no sight was ever stranger. The women appeared to be always up the first, whilst the men were frequently seen lounging in bed long after the sun was risen. This universal custom of sleeping on the house-top, speaks much in favour of the climate of Persia; and indeed we found that our repose in the open air was much more refreshing than in the confinement of a room.

MOUNT ARARAT.

Morier.

As we crossed the plain from Abbasabad to Nakbjuwan, we had a most splendid view of mount Ararat. Nothing can be more beautiful than its shape,more awful than its height. All the surrounding mountains sink into insignificance when compared to it. It is perfect in all its parts, no hard rugged feature, no unnatural prominences, every thing is in harmony, and all combines to render it one of the sublimest objects in nature. Spreading originally from an immense base, the slope towards its summit is easy and gradual, until it reaches the region of snows, when it becomes more abrupt. As a foil to this stupendous work, a smaller hill rises from the same base near the original mass, similar to it in shape and proportions, and in any other situation, entitled of itself to rank amongst the high mountains. No one since the flood seems to have been on its summit, for the rapid ascent of its snowy top would appear to render such an attempt impossible. Of this we may be certain, that no man in modern times has ascended it, for when such an adventurous and persevering traveller as Tournefort failed, it is not

likely that any of the timid, superstitious inhabitants of these countries should have succeeded. We were informed that people have reached the top of the small Ararat (or as it is called here, Cuchuck Agri dagh); but as all the account which they brought back was a tale (like that told of Savalan), about a frozen man and a cold fountain, we must be permitted to disbelieve every report on the subject which we have hitherto heard from the natives.

Id.

ENTRY OF THE KING INTO TEHERAN.

As in ancient times, almost the whole of the male population of the city was ordered to meet the king, and very early in the morning of the day of the entry, the environs on the road to Khorassan were covered with people. We were summoned by the prime minister in person, who was so anxious that we should be at our post at the earliest moment, that he came almost unattended to us; and having marshalled our procession, he led the way, and served us as a guide through the streets and bazars. The activity and vivacity of this old man are as amiable as they are extraordinary at his advanced age. We went in our smartest uniforms, and on our most lively horses; the body guard in their handsome Indian dresses, created a great clang; and, together with the numerous servants and attendants attached to the mission, we added greatly to the general bustle. The old vizier at our head, apparently all the time in great trepidation lest he should be too late, put out his horse at the full trot, and at this rate we dashed through the great crowd of horse and foot passengers who had already thronged the road. When we had travelled about two miles from the town, we were placed at our post by some of the officers of Hossein Ali Mirza, one of the princes, governor of Teheran, when we dismounted, smoked, and seated ourselves on the ground, until his majesty should appear. In the mean time, the track of his route was distinguishable over the mountains and along the plain, by a long line of dust, created by his procession. His baggage and equipages were continually passing, until we heard the Zumburek or camel-artillery, that at intervals fired vollies in alvance. As they approached, the order of procession became more distinct.

His more immediate arrival was marked by the drums and trumpets of his Nokara, the performers of which were mounted on gaudy-dressed camels; then a long row of shatirs, then the king, totally insulated, a speck in the plain; behind him the princes his sons, with their suites, then the courtiers and the officers of Defter Khoneh, (as we might say, the chief of the public officers,) and the whole was filled up by an immense tip, or body of cavalry. As the king drew near, Mirza Sheffea marshalled us about 100 yards from the road-side, and when his majesty beckoned to us, we went forwards in hasty strides, which the old vizier was anxious we should increase into a trot, it being the etiquette on these occasions, as we afterwards learnt, to run: our conductor himself was running as fast as he could. The king, having given us his Khosh Amedee, ordered us to mount our horses, and then requested me to ride near him; whilst Mirza Sheffea dropt in the rear of the king about twenty paces, where was also Hossein Khan Mervi.

He had the condescen

sion to converse very familiarly, and his remarks and manners are ever those of a highly polished man: he seemed also anxious to give us a public mark of his attention; for as we rode along, at two different intervals, he was presented with bowls filled with sugarcandy, of which he first took a piece himself, and then ordered that it should be given to me, and to the gentlemen of the mission and our attendants. This among the Persians is esteemed a very high mark of favour; and whilst we could not refrain from smiling at the strange custom that embarrassed our hands with large pieces of sugar-candy on horseback, there was scarcely a Persian around us that would not willingly have given his beard for a similar distinction.

During all this time I had an opportunity of observing the king, and remarking the different stages of the procession. His majesty was gayly dressed in a white close vest, embroidered with spangles. His sword, his dagger, and other ornaments, were entirely inlaid with precious stones. The bridle, crupper, breast-plate, were all either rubies, diamonds, or emeralds, whilst a long thick tassel of pearls was suspended under the horse's throat by a cordon

that went round his neck. At different intervals he called for his alioun, (the water-pipe,) which was brought to him by his Shatir Bashi, or head of the running footmen, from which he took not more than one whiff, which was afterwards emitted in one long white stream of smoke, which he managed to conduct over his beard as a perfume. He was dignified in all he did, and seemed very attentive to all that was going on. As he approached the town, long rows of well-dressed men at some distance from the road made low bows, and whenever he called one near to him, he came running with great eagerness, and received whatever he had to say with the greatest devotedness. He was then received by a corps of Mollahs, and Peishnamez (priests), who chanted forth the Khotbeh* with all their might. Then oxen and sheep in great numbers were sacrificed just as he passed, and their heads thrown under his horse's feet. Many glass vases, filled with sugar, were broken before him, and their contents strewed on his road. Every where dervishes were making loud exclamations for his prosperity; whilst a band of wrestlers and dancers were twirling about their mils (clubs), and performing all sorts of antics, to the sound of the copper drums of Looties. Nothing could be more striking than the variety of the scene that surrounded the king. Amongst the crowd I perceived the whole of the Armenians, headed by their clergy, bearing crosses, painted banners, the Gospel, and long candles. They all began to chant psalms as his majesty drew near; and their zeal was only surpassed by that of the Jews, who also had collected themselves into a body, conducted by their rabbis, who raised on high a carved representation on wood of the tabernacle, and made the most outrageous cries of devotion, accompanied by the most extravagant gestures of humiliation, determined that they at least should not pass unnoticed by the monarch. On coming close to the walls of the city, the crowd of horsemen and

*This is an oration delivered every Friday, after the forenoon service, in the principal mosques, in which the Mahomedans praise God, bless Mahomet and his descendants, and pray for the king.

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