a sharp decline in supporting and other special types of assistance from a peak of about $150 million to an estimated approximately $30 million in 1965. The decline in this type of assistance has been accompanied by an increase in developmentally oriented assistance from the previously mentioned $20 million in 1958 to an annual average of over $175 million for the period 1962-65.

In the earlier years of economic assistance to Africa the major emphasis in technical assistance was on the direct transfer of skills through the provision of advisers and training-a people-to-people approach on a very longrun, low-cost basis.

Experience over the past few years, however, has led to a basic reorientation in AID's approach. We have concluded that political and social conditions, and expectations, in many developing countries preclude a diffuse, people-to-people approach. Further, it became clear from the older programs that basic institutions and staff to receive technical assistance were lacking and that a variety of services and institutions would have to be established to absorb and benefit from external aid. Consequently U.S. technical assistance to Africa has become primarily "institution building" in character. This concept is based on the realization that assistance cannot be effective without an efficient institutional base. It allows for work within existing indigenous institutions to improve them, as well as for programs to build new institutions to utilize AID-supplied technology and expertise.

AID institution building takes two forms:

1. assistance which links technical assistance with particular capital projects such as schools, hospitals, development banks, roads, et cetera, and

2. assistance which seeks to improve the organization and management of the governmental structure or some department within the government, or which provides for the establishment of a particular institution such as a university, for example.

Under the first premise, the linking of technical assistance with particular capital projects, AID may provide funds to build a university, provide teachers to staff it for a number of years upon completion of the physical plant, and simultaneously train Africans to step into faculty positions. Thus a 10-year project might produce a university staffed and run by Africans and prepared to continue training citizens of the country on an ongoing basis without further foreign aid. This kind of project is especially favored because the linking of technical assistance, i.e. people, and capital assistance, such as buildings, will insure against technical assistance being jeopardized from lack of sufficient facilities and capital projects proving ineffective because of insufficiently trained staff.

Under the second premise, which seeks to improve government management and operations, AID may provide, for example, assistance in the reorganization of a ministry of finance, improvement of budgeting and tax procedures, assistance in establishing an agricultural service, or assistance in improving the techniques of economic planning. The objective in all such cases is to build or improve some

ongoing institution of economic development so that it will, within a reasonable period, be able to function on its own without further foreign assistance and give the recipient country increased capacity for sustained, self-motivated development.

One of the first products of a change in emphasis in aid activities was an enlarged effort in the fields of education involving extensive school construction and expansion of teacher training and university systems. This followed the recommendations of a special study by the National Academy of Sciences, which concluded:

... that the future development of sub-Saharan Africa depends, in the first instance, upon the rate at which progress can be made in strengthening education at all levels.

Over $21 million was obligated in fiscal year 1961 for assistance in the field of education, consisting of some 22 projects in 11 countries plus some regional activities. This special program focused primarily on establishing indigenous educational facilities and institutions. However, it also set about directly to train large numbers of Africans in recognition of the severe shortage of skilled persons at all levels. Some 150 young Americans went to teach in East African secondary schools a harbinger of the Peace Corps-and we collaborated with 150 U.S. colleges and universities in a substantial undergraduate scholarship program, involving 230 Africans in the first year.

Another major innovation was to turn the focus of U.S. aid, as in other areas of the world, to supporting basic economic growth through broader defined development assistance. In the case of a few selected countries, such as Nigeria and Tunisia, we pledged significant help to long-range development programs on the basis of anticipations and assurances regarding country performance. The capital aid which these produced, almost entirely through development loans, has helped to develop physical facilities and productive enterprises. These, moreover, have established the United States' interest in achieving the national development plans, and encouraged other free-world donors to collaborate and, more significantly, to liberalize their financing conditions.

A further significant element in aid policy has been our attempt to concentrate our efforts in a relatively few functional areas in which we have special competence and in geographic areas of economic and political strength.

It is, of course, a gross understatement to say that conditions in Africa are continuing to change rapidly. Increased internal instability and weak security, further attempts at Communist penetration, decreased influence and assistance by ex-metropoles, and increased African pressures to reduce reliance upon them and the apparent nonacceptability of their assistance in certain areas are all a part of the current African situation. Such conditions have influenced the course of U.S. aid over the past year and will continue to do so in the future. While neither the future course of events in Africa nor their effect

"National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, Recommendations for Strengthening Science and Technology in Selected Areas of Africa South of the Sahara (Washington, 1959), p. 20.

on U.S. aid policy and activities can be completely foreseen, a few things do seem clear. Among the policies and actions which seem appropriate to these conditions and which we have adopted or are undertaking are:

1. The central emphasis on U.S. aid policy should continue to be on assisting African countries in making maximum progress along the path of economic and social growth and development.

2. New developments are of common concern to the United States and other countries, and, despite a changing European role in Africa, there should be improved cooperation and coordination among the U.S. and free-world donors and a continued major input of assistance into Africa by such donors.

3. We must have an increased willingness to provide, in addition to advisory personnel, operating personnel in our technical assistance programs in circumstances in which they are acceptable to the African countries, while these countries take steps to develop indigenous trained manpower.

4. Greater developmental support will be provided to some countries, with AID standing ready to give assurances of continuing U.S. development support tied to country self-help performance.

5. A willingness to be responsive to requests and needs for programs of assistance in areas related to internal stability such as public safety, mass communications, youth, and labor.

6. An active and positive effort on the part of AID to increase development lending by conducting a greater number of and more comprehensive feasibility studies, by undertaking better economic analyses, and by assistance in accelerating project preparation. A special organizational unit is being established within the AID Africa bureau to undertake such activities.

From the foregoing it can be seen that U.S. aid to Africa has grown and developed in a manner consistent with African conditions and needs and U.S. interests and concern. Its amount and direction and content have evolved as conditions have changed. It is expected that U.S. aid policies and activities will continue to change and move with movements in the African situation and U.S. interests. If, however, we are to have the best answers to "one of the important questions on our national agenda," we will have them only as a result of a mutual effort with African countries and institutions such as this which you are dedicating here today.

Worthwhile results from the aid are almost certainly going to require changes in motivations and values and in sociopolitical situations. We need to know more about methods of communicating with illiterate and isolated peoples, the communications patterns existing in particular situations, the consequences of use of varying systems of land tenure, cultural traits conducive to economic development, factors which have ended periods of economic stagnation, the best places to apply limited capital imports, the relative strength of different sorts of incentives, the possible role and value of extended local government, the values and motivations regarding borrowing and repaying loans, the impact of the class structure on economic development, et cetera.

We must seek to obtain adoption of the attitudes and forms of organization that are the most conducive to increasing productivity, savings, and investment and establishing effective and democratic political institutions.

A. Regional Approaches Toward African Unity

Document VIII-6

Agreement on the Establishment of the African Development Bank, SIGNED AT KHARTOUM, AUGUST 4, 1963, ENTERED INTO FORCE, SEPTEMBER 10, 1964 1

ASSEMBLY OF THE HEADS OF STATE AND GOVERNMENT OF THE ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN UNITY (OAU), CAIRO, JULY 17-21, 1964 2

[NOTE: The Assembly of the Heads of State and Government of 33 of the 34 members of the Organization of African Unity met in its First Session in Cairo, July 17-21, 1964. The Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville) did not attend.

[At this five-day session, the Assembly adopted resolutions on A partheid in South Africa (post, doc. VIII-49), Apartheid and Racial Discrimination (post, doc. VIII-50), Denuclearization (post, doc. X-51), Racial Discrimination in the United States (post, doc. VIII-9), Renunciation of the Use of War (post, doc. VIII-8), Southern Rhodesia (post, doc. VIII-57), Algeria-Morocco Border Dispute (post, doc. VIII-12), The Territorial Integrity of Basutoland, Bechuanaland, and Swaziland (post, doc. VIII-54), and Boundary Disputes Among African States (see footnote 4 to doc. VIII-12, post).

[Supplementary resolutions were passed on Promoting the Unity and Solidarity of African States, the Commission on the Problem of Refugees in Africa, the Report of the Committee on Liberation, the Establishment of a Commission of Jurists and a Transport and Communications Conference on Trade and Development, Africa's Representation at the United Nations, and Interim Financing of the General Secretariat of the OAU. The Assembly also ratified the

1U.N. docs. E/CN.14/ADB/28 and E/CN.14/ADB/36; or 510 UNTS 3. At the end of 1964, 23 African countries had ratified the agreement.

' Organization of African Unity, Provisional Secretariat, Resolutions and Recommendations of the First Session of the Assembly of Heads of State and Government and Third Session of the Council of Ministers, issued by the Press and Information Department of the OAU General Secretariat (Addis Ababa, n.d.), and Colin Legum, Pan-Africanism (Rev. ed.; New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., 1965), pp. 140-142, 303–308.

Protocol of the Commission of Mediation, Conciliation and Arbitration (post, doc. VIII-10). A special resolution thanked President Gamal Abdul Nasser for the hospitality extended by the host government.

[For documentation of the work of the Foreign Ministers of the Organization of African Unity in connection with the EthiopiaSomalia border dispute and the rebellion in the Congo, see post, doc. VIII-11, and docs. VIII-19 et seq.]

Document VIII-7

Greetings of the United States to the Assembly of Heads of State and Government of the Organization of African Unity: MESSAGE FROM THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES (JOHNSON) TO THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED ARAB REPUBLIC (NASSER), JULY 17, 1964 3

I extend, through you, to the representatives of the nations and peoples of Africa gathered in Cairo, the friendly greetings of the Government and people of the United States of America.

As the Heads of State and of Government meet again one year after creating the Organization of African Unity at that historic Addis Ababa gathering, we are impressed with the striking progress which has been made toward African unity in peace and freedom.

Africa through the OAU has shown its capacity to deal through peaceful means with African problems, including such disputes as have arisen among its members. In this way, within the framework of the United Nations Charter, African nations are making a vital contribution to world peace.

As the OAU moves into its second year of activity, it will face new challenges which, I am sure, it will meet in the same spirit it has already demonstrated in the momentous year just past. I and the people of the United States extend to this Organization our best wishes for continued progress toward your high aims.

[Denuclearization of Africa: RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE ASSEMBLY OF HEADS OF STATE AND GOVERNMENT OF THE OAU, CAIRO, JULY 21, 1964-Post, Doc. X-51]

4

'Department of State Bulletin, Aug. 3, 1964, p. 147.

See American Foreign Policy: Current Documents, 1963, pp. 628-637.

See supra.