manners of the people. In the mountainous eastern districts and in the fens of the Delta, where agriculture was impossible, the inhabitants led a pastoral life. On the Nile and along the coast, were tribes of fishermen. In the rich plains, dwelt the more civilized part of the nation. The institution of castes existed among them. The priests and warriors were the most honored; next, the agriculturists, merchants, mariners, and artisans; the lowest caste was that of shepherds.

The migrations of the priestly caste from their native regions in the south, were not simultaneous; they formed settlements at different times, in the most fertile portions of the valley. The central point of the colony was always a temple, round which cities were gradually formed. These settlements afterward led to the division of the country into nomes, a name given by the Egyptians to a city, its environs and dependant villages. There was a religious (as originally a political) distinction between these nomes: each city had its own presiding deity, and the animals regarded as sacred in one nome were not respected in another. The history of these petty states is unknown; but they were finally absorbed in the dominion of Thebes and Memphis.

The nations bordering on the Egyptians were, for the most part, barbarous and wandering tribes, whose avarice was roused by the increasing opulence of the valley of the Nile. The Hyk'sos, or shepherd-kings, as they were called, came from Arabia, and, after many predatory incursions, made themselves masters of Lower and Middle Egypt.

Egypt became united under one sovereign, after the expulsion of the Hyk'sos: and the divisions of the people into castes, and of the country into nomes, were permanently fixed. The priestly caste was subdivided into families, each devoted and restricted to a separate temple and a particular God. Over each of these sacerdotal subdivisions a high-priest presided, whose office was hereditary; and the high-priests of metropolitan temples enjoyed authority almost equal to that of kings. And their influence was greatly strengthened by their monopoly of every branch of scientific knowledge. They were not only priests, but also judges, soothsayers, physicians, architects, and sculptors.

The warrior-caste ranked next to that of the priests: the royal family belonged to it. Certain nomes were assigned to the support of this caste, most of which were in Lower Egypt, where the country was most exposed to attack.

The Egyptians were the earliest nation that organized a regular army, and thus laid the foundation of the whole system of ancient warfare. A brief account of their military affairs will therefore illustrate, not only their history, but that of the great Asiatic monarchies, and of the Greeks, during the heroic ages.

The most important division of an Egyptian army was the body of war-chariots, used instead of cavalry. These chariots were mounted on two wheels, and made, especially the wheels, with great care. They were hung low; open behind, so that the warrior could easily step in and out; and without seat. They were drawn by two horses, and generally contained two warriors, one of whom managed the steeds

while the other fought. Nations were distinguished from each other by the shape of their chariots.

Great attention was paid to the breeding and training of horses, in Egypt. The harness and housings of the horses were richly decorated; and fixed to the chariots, on the outside, was a quiver and bowcase, decorated also with extraordinary taste and skill. The bow was the national weapon, employed both by infantry and cavalry. No nation of antiquity paid so much attention to archery as the Egyptians; their arrows were drawn to the ear; and their bows were more powerful, and their arrows better aimed, than those of other nations. The children of the warrior-caste were trained from earliest infancy to the practice of archery.

The arms of the Egyptian heavy-armed infantry were a spear, a dagger, a short sword, a helmet, and a shield. Pole-axes and battleaxes were occasionally used. Coats-of-mail were used only by the principal officers, and some remarkable warriors, like Goliath, the champion of the Philistines. The light troops were armed with swords, battleaxes, maces, and clubs.

The system of discipline and drill was very complete. Every battalion had its standard, with some symbol or sacred object represented on it, usually the cognizance of the nome or tribe. The soldiers were levied by conscription, drilled to the sound of the trumpet, and taught to march in measured time.

Cavalry, in the earlier period, were not employed as a military body, but used as skirmishers, vedettes, and expresses, rather than as warriors. The Egyptians generally treated their captives with great cruelty, putting them to death, or reducing them to slavery.

The religion and government of Egypt were intimately blended: there were prescribed forms and ceremonies for every important action, which even kings dared not neglect. This gave the priests paramount control over public affairs and domestic life. The religion of the priests seems to have been more refined than the gross idolatry of the lower classes: one general idea, however, pervades the entire system -the importance of agriculture to a state. Hence, the great influence of astronomy in their theology, as determining the times and seasons for agricultural operations; hence, also, the deification of the productive powers of nature. Never were a people more dependant on priestly astrologers than the Egyptians: the stars were consulted for every undertaking, private or public, and the priests alone had the right to consult them and deliver their oracles. The belief in a future state influenced every portion of Egyptian life: but the nature of the creed is difficult to be explained. In fact, there were two inconsistent creeds, the belief in transmigration of souls, confined to the priestly caste; and the belief that the soul will continue as long as the body endures -whence the practice of so carefully embalming, and of hewing sepulchres in the solid rock. The latter was the popular opinion; hence, the importance of the rites of burial, and the dread of the trial after death, when a tribunal, under priestly direction, determined whether the body should be placed in the tomb, or left to natural decay.

The relative position of the lower castes varied at different times; but all trades and professions were hereditary. It was probably sup

posed that this exclusive dedication of families to separate employments would insure perfection in the arts; and, certainly, the progress of the Egyptians, especially in architecture, surpasses that of any other

nation.

Gymnastic exercises and music were the favorite amusements of the ancient Egyptians. At their meals, they used chairs and tables not unlike our own. Women were treated more respectfully than in other countries of the East. Great respect was paid to age and rank.

The principal trees of Egypt were the sycamore, the fig, the pomegranate, the peach, the locust-tree, and the vine. Great care was taken of the vines. Wine was used in great quantities, by the nobles and wealthy merchants. Of esculent vegetables growing wild, the most remarkable were the lotus, a kind of lily, and the papyrus; the leaves of the latter, dried and prepared, were used for writing upon. The cultivated vegetables were corn and pulse, cotton, melons, cucumbers, onions, &c.

The domestic animals of the Egyptians were the same as those of most civilized countries. The cat was held in particular honor. The animals of the mountain and desert were the wild ox, the goat and sheep, and the antelope. They seem to have obtained camels from some foreign country. Among the amphibious animals of the Nile, the crocodile and the hippopotamus deserve to be noticed, the skin of the latter being regarded as the best covering for shields. Wild and tame fowl abounded; the eggs of geese and other poultry were hatched in ovens heated to the requisite temperature, a process still used by the modern Copts.

SECTION III.-History of Egypt from the earliest period to the Accession of Psammelichus.

FROM B. C. 1900 тo B. c. 650.

EGYPT was originally composed of several small states, of which the first were founded in Upper Egypt. Though Thebes was the most ancient of the powerful states, Memphis is that of which we have the earliest accounts. It was the metropolis of a powerful kingdom when it was visited by the patriarch Abraham, and already the centre of a flourishing corn-trade. The court of the reigning Pharaoh was regularly organized: the jealousy of foreigners, especially the heads of pastoral tribes, was not yet apparent, for Abraham was received with great hospitality.

In the interval between the departure of Abraham from Egypt and the sale of Joseph to Potiphar, the Hyk'sos and other wandering tribes had began to make incursions into the valley of the Nile, and to ravage its fruitful fields. The policy which induced the Pharaoh who then occupied the throne to grant the land of Goshen to the colony of the Israelites, was equally creditable to his sagacity and generosity; it was a pasturage and frontier province, forming the eastern barrier of Egypt toward Syria and Palestine, the countries from which invasion was most dreaded. By assigning this district to Jacob and his family, it was covered in a short time by a numerous, brave, and industrious people, giving additional security and resources to the country.

After the death of Joseph, but at what distance of time there is no evidence to determine, a change of dynasty took place in Egypt. This was probably the event described by profane writers as the conquest of Egypt by the Hyk'sos, and consequently the Pharaoh who so cruelly tyrannized over the Israelites was not a native Egyptian, but an intrusive foreigner. The motive assigned for oppressing the Israelites was, "this people are more and mightier than we"-which could hardly be true of the whole Egyptian nation, but might very probably be of a race of conquerors. One of the tasks which this cruel despot imposed on the Israelites, was the building of "treasure cities." Among the cruelties inflicted on them, their being employed in the manufacture of brick is particularly mentioned: under the burning sun of Egypt, the process of wetting, tempering, and working the clay previous to its being moulded, was so painful and unwholesome that it was usually the work of slaves and captives. But when the Pharaoh found that the Israelites still continued to "multiply and wax very mighty," he had recourse to the barbarous expedient of extermination, and ordered that all the male children should be destroyed. Moses was saved from the general slaughter and educated at the Egyptian court; after which, though the fact is not expressly stated, the cruel edict appears to have fallen into disuse. Moses never forgot his parentage and nation; probably the courtiers of Pharaoh failed not to remind him that he belonged to a degraded caste.

Having been compelled to quit Egypt for having slain one of the oppressors, Moses sought shelter in the land of Midian, where Jehovah appeared to him, and commanded him to achieve the deliverance of His chosen people, investing him with the miraculous powers necessary for so difficult an object. The reigning Pharaoh refused to part with so valuable a race of slaves, and his obstinacy was punished with ten dreadful plagues. The smiting of the first-born was the consummation of these fearful judgments: Pharaoh and his subjects hasted to send the Israelites away, and they quitted the land of Egypt. Avarice induced the Pharaoh to pursue them with a mighty army; but God opened a passage for the Israelites through the Red sea, while the Egyptian host, attempting to pursue them, were overwhelmed with the returning waters.

This calamity (B. c. 1491) greatly weakened the power of the Hyk'sos, already menaced by the increasing strength of the Theban monarchy. Previous to this, we have scarcely any probable account of the names and ages of the Egyptian kings, except that Ménes appears to have been the founder of the monarchy, and Osirtesen I. the Pharaoh who received Joseph. But henceforth we are able to determine with probability some general epochs by comparing the evidence of the monuments with that of the historians. To this period belong the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties of Manetho, the founders of the most important monuments of Upper Egypt. In the reign of Am ́enoph I., the Thebans extended their conquests to the south, and seized on part of Núbia. Crude brick arches were constructed at this period (B. C. 1540) and glass was soon after brought into use. Under the fourth king of this dynasty, Thutmósis, or Thothmes III., the children of Israel departed from Egypt, and the Theban monarch succeeded in

expelling the Hyk'sos-greatly weakened by the destruction of their best warriors in the Red sea-from the greater part of the country, and shutting them up in their fortresses. Their great stronghold was taken by his son and successor, Thoth'mes IV.; and the shepherdkings surrendered on condition of being allowed to withdraw into Syria. The intimate connexion between these two events-the Exodus of the Israelites, and the expulsion of the Hyk'sos-have led to their being confounded together. The next remarkable monarch was Am'enoph III., who reigned conjointly with his brother; but, soon becoming weary of divided empire, he expelled his partner. The dethroned brother was probably the Dan'aus of the Greeks, who, leaving Egypt with his partisans, settled in Ar'gos, of which he became king (B. C. 1430). The pretended vocal statue of Mem'non was erected in honor of Am'enoph; and in his reign the building of the great temples seems to have been commenced. He annexed the greater part of Núbia to his dominions. Among his successors the name of Ram'eses is the most distinguished. It was borne by four sovereigns; two in the eighteenth, and two in the nineteenth dynasty. The first was expelled. by his brother, and is by some identified with Dan'aus: the second, called Mi-Am'mon, "he who loves Am'mon," was the founder of the palace of Medínet Abú at Thebes; and from the sculptures on its walls, he appears to have been a warrior and conqueror.

Am'enoph IV. was the last of the eighteenth dynasty. In his unfortunate reign the Hyk'sos renewed their invasions; and the king, confiding his son, a child of five years old, to the care of a friend, fled into Ethiopia, where he remained thirteen years an exile. During this period the Hyk'sos were guilty of the most wanton excesses; for "they not only set fire to the cities and villages, but committed every kind of sacrilege, and destroyed the images of the gods, and roasted and fed upon those sacred animals that were worshipped; and having compelled the priests and prophets to kill and sacrifice them, they cast them naked out of the country." Amen'ophis at length, aided by an Ethiopian army, and supported by his gallant son, expelled the shepherd-kings, and restored the prosperity of his country.

Ram'eses the Great, called also Séthos or Sesos'tris, is the most celebrated of the Egyptian monarchs. The conquests attributed to him are so mighty, that he has been by some regarded as merely a symbolical being; but from the evidence of the monuments, he appears to be undoubtedly an historical personage. It is indeed doubtful whether the Ram'eses who founded Medínet Abú, or the son of Am'enoph, be the great conqueror who carried his arms into Bac'tria in the east, and Thrace in the west, and before whose throne captives from the frozen Caucasus mingled with the sable tribes from the extreme south of. Ethiopia: but the existence of this conqueror, his daring hunts of the lion in the desert while a youth, his aid in the expulsion of the Hyk'sos, his extensive conquests, and the vast treasures he collected from the vanquished nations, are satisfactorily proved by the sculptured history of his exploits on the walls of the buildings he erected or enlarged.

* Others assign Dan'aus to a later period.

† Manétho, as quoted by Joséphus.

Wilkinson identifies Ram'eses II. with Sesos'tris.