I. AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMY.

USES OF PRODUCTS OF THE STONE-PINE TREE.

The stone-pine of Europe is applied to a great many uses, some of which may suggest a similar employment of the well-known piñon, or stone-pine of Colorado, New Mexico, and the central portions of the United States. The seeds are considered preferable to almonds, in consequence of their more delicate and aromatic taste, and they are said to be chiefly consumed on steamboats during long voyages, and for dessert at the principal hotels. In portions of Europe the investing pellicles are used for filling mattresses for hospitals, and they are said to make very wholesome beds. The unopened pine-cones are believed to be efficacious in preserving cloth garments and furs from moths.-17 A, July, 1875,

105.

COVERING THE SLOPES OF THE ALPS WITH FORESTS.

Among the objects exhibited at the recent Geographical Exposition in Paris is a series of maps illustrating the progress in reclothing the slopes in the Department of the BassesAlps with a growth of wood, this relating especially to the basin of the torrent of Bourget, commenced in 1869. Considerable time was occupied by the preliminary surveys, but the process of replanting has already been begun with such effect as to insure the protection of the hamlet of Bourget, which had been threatened with destruction by being washed away. The influence exerted upon population and human existence by deforesting or the destruction of the woods is shown by the fact that in 1846 the population of one Department in the Alps of France amounted to 150,000 persons, while in 1872 only 137,000 could be enumerated, 13,000 having been forced to remove elsewhere in consequence of the decreasing quantity of fertile land.-1 B, 348.

THE PROPER TIME FOR CUTTING TREES.

An extensive inquiry has been made in Prussia into the effect upon the durability of woods of the season at which the

trees are cut down. In general, the wood felled when the sap is not running has a decided pre-eminence as to its durability, strength, and density. The heat given out in burning wood felled in December and January is also, according to these experiments, greater than for woods cut in February and March.-7 C, XI., 123.

THE DESTRUCTION OF FORESTS.

The rapid and improvident destruction of our forests, and the prevailing indifference displayed on the subject of their conservation and cultivation, has become an almost stereotyped theme of warning and regret. It is demonstrable that the immediate consequences of this improvidence are an inconstancy and diminution of the rainfall, and a general deterioration of climate, to say nothing of a host of more remote and complex evils that follow inevitably in its train in course of time. These consequences have been abundantly realized in the desolation that has overwhelmed once fertile districts of Europe, and has stimulated the enactment and enforcement of wise laws which our lawgivers would do well to imitate. Councilor Wex, at the recent yearly meeting of the Geographical Society of Vienna, gave an able review of this most important subject as it affected the water supply of Central Europe. From the facts adduced in his paper, Herr of 17 Wex demonstrated a fall in the level, since fifty years, inches in the Elbe, 24.8 inches in the Rhine, 17 inches in the Oder, 26 inches in the Vistula, and in the Danube at Orsova as much as 55 inches. Accompanying this fall in level, which means so much of a decrease in the volume of these rivers, there was also shown to be a constantly increasing diminu tion of the discharge from springs. It would be instructive to have trustworthy data upon this subject from that portion of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains where the destruction of timber land has been for years going on on a scale of unparalleled magnitude.

CULTIVATION OF THE BAMBOO IN FRANCE.

A peculiar variety of bamboo has been sent to the Acclimatization Society of Paris, which it is believed will readily adapt itself to the climate of France, and may prove of very great value. It is said, indeed, that the French growth has

already become an article of export to England, being very hardy, and able to sustain itself in both hot and cold countries. It grows rapidly, attains a height of thirty yards, and multiplies very fast.-17 A, July 1, 1875, 107.

CAOUTCHOUC FROM MILKWEED.

A report has gone the rounds of the technical press that the manufacture of rubber from the milkweed (Asclepias) has been undertaken by a company in Canada with a large capital. The milky juice of this family of plants is said to yield four per cent. of caoutchouc.

NEW LARGE JAPANESE RADISH.

A new variety of radish, the seeds of which were forwarded from Japan by Dr. Genou, has been introduced into the French market under the name of Raphanus acantiformis, and is pronounced an acquisition of value. In color it is milk-white, with a tinge of yellow, and it is firm, transparent, and juicy, and of delicate flavor, while the skin is thin and peels off easily. In Japan, where it is cultivated under the name of Daicon, it frequently attains a length of thirty-five inches, with a corresponding thickness; and it is used in a great variety of forms as food, and is frequently fed to cattle. on account of its great yield. At Lyons it has been grown eighteen inches long and twelve inches thick. It is sowed in July and August, and requires for its full development a loose, well-manured soil, and frequent watering in September. -7 C, March, 1875, 35.

VALUE OF THE COMMON BROOM PLANT AS A FIBRE.

The common broom of Europe (Spartium junceum) is announced as furnishing a fibre equal and in some respects superior to that of hemp and flax. In view of the great extent to which this plant occurs wild in Southern Europe, and the ease with which it is cultivated, such application, not indeed new, but only more recently revived, promises important results. Its fibre can be very minutely divided, and, as it retains heat, it can supply the place of wool. It receives the most delicate dyes as well as an animal fibre, and successfully resists the action of acids and salt water without undergoing any change or losing its tenacity. Its strength

is one third greater than that of hemp, while it is thirteen per cent. lighter. It can be furnished, delivered at the factories, for about £2 per ton. The fibre may be obtained by soaking the stems for a few days in warm water, or else by means of a chemical solution of little cost.-17 A, March 1, 1875, 41.

AUTUMN PLANTING OF POTATOES.

Experiments have been conducted in Paris with reference. to a method of autumn planting of potatoes, by which new potatoes may be dug in January. The sets are planted in August on a thin layer of salt, which appears to be the spe cial secret in the process, and the potatoes are earthed in September, the ground being cleared of weeds in October. The result is a crop of seven or eight fair-sized tubers to each root in January.—18 A, February 19, 1875, 575.

IMPORTANCE OF PEAT BEDS.

In some remarks on the climatology of New Hampshire, Professor Huntington states that the preservation of the vegetation on our mountains is of great importance, not only in modifying the distribution of rain, but also in modifying the extreme of cold in winter. Our mountains, especially the higher summits, are covered to a considerable depth, except where it has been destroyed by fires, by peat, formed chiefly from moss and lichens. Now it has been found by experiment that peat moss can absorb more than twice its own weight of water; dry clay, nearly its own weight; dry earth or garden mould, more than half its own weight, and dry sand a little more than a third of its own weight. With equal times of drying, under the same circumstances, therefore, peat moss loses two thirds of all the water it contained; clay and earth more than three fourths, and sand more than nine tenths. Thus, in a dry season, beds of peat must form an invaluable reservoir of water for the supply of springs and streams. Wherever it or vegetable mould abounds, the soil retains its moisture, being only gradually evaporated; a high relative humidity is maintained, and springs gush forth from the slopes of the mountains, and a slight change in the temperature causes rain to fail in gentle showers. It is noted that on the mountains of New Hampshire fires in gen

eral spread only over their eastern slopes.- Climatology of New Hampshire, 1874.

PREVENTION OF THE FREEZING OF FRUIT IN THE Bud.

The freezing of fruit in the bud, frequently occasioned by a few warm days succeeded by late frosts, it is said, may be prevented by spreading a thick layer of frozen manure, or of ice or snow, around the trees in February or March, while the ground is firmly frozen. The buds will thus be kept back, since the ground will thaw more slowly, and the roots convey no nutriment to the tree. When frosts are no longer to be feared the covering should be removed.-10 C, August 1, 1875, 123.

SMOKE AS A PROTECTION AGAINST FROST.

The production of artificial clouds of smoke is a common appliance against frost in France and Germany. M. Vinard recommended a plan which is perfectly successful, and which consists in carefully mixing gas tar with sawdust and old straw, and piling up this mixture in large heaps in the vineyards. The mixture remains inflammable more than a fortnight, in spite of rain and weather. When required for use smaller heaps are made from the large ones, about two feet in diameter, and distributed in and around the vineyard. If there is little wind these heaps burn freely for about three and a half hours, and produce a very dense smoke. The artificial cloud which thus enwraps the vines considerably decreases the radiation from the ground, and therefore prevents frost, which is greatest toward morning during calm spring nights.-12 A, XL, 396.

THE EVAPORATION FROM THE SKINS OF FRUIT.

By comparing the evaporation from apples with and without their outer skins, Just has arrived at the following conclusions: 1. The resistance which the skin offers to evaporation is quite energetic at low temperatures, but diminishes sensibly above the temperature of 46°, until it becomes barely sensible at 97°. 2. In the case of pared apples, a covering is formed from the dried exterior cells, which opposes rapid evaporation. 3. This exterior covering is formed gradually, so that its retarding influence is scarcely felt for the first