The curves expressing the conductivity of dry soils lie between the corresponding curves for water and the air, while the curves for wet soils lie, in general, on the other side of the curves for water; so that the conductivity of water is intermediate between that of wet and dry soils.-19 C, VIII.,

145.

EARTHQUAKES AND MAGNETIC DISTURBANCES.

Professor Lamont, director of the observatory at Munich, says that many cases are known where magnetic disturbances coincide with earthquakes, and states that on April 18 he by chance saw the needle of the declination instrument receive a sudden jerk, the oscillations continuing for some time. After some days he received news that violent oscillations of the needle had been observed in Parma, and subsequent computations showed that the movement had begun at the same moment in Parma and in Munich; while, later still, reports were received of a violent earthquake occurring simultaneously in Greece.-12 4, X., 224.

PHYSICAL AND FAUNAL RESEMBLANCES BETWEEN THE LAKES OF GALILEE AND OF UTAH,

There is some resemblance between the physical conditions of the lakes of Galilee and of Utah. Both are in mountainous regions, and are fed by mountainous streams; both are connected by a river with a larger body of salt or brackish water. They are but few degrees apart in north latitude. About the year 1864 Dr. Tristram investigated the zoology of Palestine, and determined for the first time the true relationships of the animals enumerated by Moses. He discovered that the species alluded to as the "unicorn" is the wild buffalo of the East. He brought home a fine series of fishes of the Lake of Galilee, which have been determined by Dr. Gunther, of the British Museum. Seventeen species are included in the list, which enter seven families. There is an eel, a considerable number of chubs and minnows, a cat-fish, and four species of perch. No doubt the last named constitute the more highly valued edible fishes, and may be regarded as the especial object of pursuit of Andrew and Simon Peter, and of James and John. Perhaps it was one of these that our Lord had obtained

when the apostles said, "A fire of coals burning, and fish laid thereon." In conformity with such ideas, Dr. Gunther named the species Hemichromis sacra and Chromis andreæ and Chromis simonis. The fourth is one with which the Jews must have been familiar before leaving Egypt, for it is the common perch of that country-Chromis nilotica. The fish from whose mouth Peter took a piece of money is said by medieval writers to be the haddock, and the black spots behind the axillæ are asserted to be the marks of the toil-stained finger and thumb of Peter, miraculously preserved. As the haddock is a marine fish of the North Atlantic, and does not occur in fresh water, we are not surprised at not finding it in Dr. Gunther's list.

The fishes of Lake Utah have been collected by the naturalists of Lieutenant Wheeler's United States Survey, and number thirteen species. The number will, no doubt, be increased on fuller investigation. They are not nearly so varied in type as those of the Lake of Galilee, representing only four families. Three of these do not exist in the Palestine waters; but the fourth, the chub and minnow family (Cyprinidae), is most largely represented in both. The others are of the sucker, whitefish, and salmon families, there being no perch, cat-fish, nor eels. There is but a single species of trout and whitefish each; but these go far toward supplying the economic deficiencies. The whitefish (Coregonus williamsonii) is a delightful table fish, and the most southern species of its family; while the trout (Salmo virginalis) is equally agreeable as food, and reaches a larger size. It has black spots on a silver ground, and a broad red band along the side, with red belly, red bars on the chin, red muzzle, etc. In the streams of the adjacent mountains a stouter species is found, the Salmo pleuriticus, which is similar in general color, but different in form, while the same crimson lateral band is seen in a sucker (Catostomus discobolus) which inhabits the tributaries of the Colorado River.

THE EARTHQUAKE OF BELLUNO.

The Royal Institute of Science in Venice, immediately after the news of the fearful earthquake that occurred on the 29th of June, 1873, in the province of Belluno, appointed a commission to make a thorough study of this subject.

From the report of this commission, consisting of Professors Pirona and Taramelli, it appears that the valley of Belluno is occupied by a tertiary formation, and that the earthquake shock was first felt at five minutes before five in the morning, lasting about fifteen seconds, and producing fearful destruction over the entire region. Two thirds of the city of Belluno was converted into a heap of dust. The movement of the earth-shock was from south to north, or, perhaps more correctly, from south-southeast to north-northwest. Many peculiar phenomena, such as the twisting of buildings, doors, walls, etc., took place, which have been fully explained by Mallet. Chasms were formed 200 feet long and one or two broad, but which subsequently closed. Lakes and brooks were altered, and springs dried up, while others were opened. In some springs there was noticed for twenty or thirty minutes a sulphurous taste, which, however, disappeared. No investigation appears to have been made into the location of the earthquake centre within the earth's surface.-7 C, X., 289.

THE EARTHQUAKE OF THE 22D OF OCTOBER, 1873.

Dr. Lasaulx has made a thorough study of the earthquake that occurred in Herzzogenrath on the 22d of October, 1873, and has found himself obliged to base his studies principally upon observations of the time at which the earthquake was felt. By means of a large number of such observations, he is able to draw curved lines connecting the points at which the shock was simultaneously felt, and thus incloses a central region directly over that spot within the earth whence the shock emanated. The velocity with which the wave was propagated along the surface of the earth was about ten miles per second. The depth of the centre was found, according to the method of Seebach, to be about six miles; while an independent computation by Professor Kortung gave a depth of three miles. It is evident, therefore, that the centre was in the solid part of the earth's crust, and the conclusion seems to be justified that the cause of the shock was the formation, or possibly the extension, of one of those cracks or faults that occur so frequently in that neighborhood, as revealed by the mining operations. A seismochronograph is described by Dr. Lasaulx, adapted to the de

termination of the exact moment of the shock, and it is highly desirable that such a simple instrument shall be extensively employed throughout the world in the investigation of these phenomena. Professor Abbe suggests that earthquakes are not beyond the reach of the Army Signaloffice predictions.-7 C, X., 444.

RECENT VOLCANIC PHENOMENA IN ICELAND.

During the past winter attention was directed in Norway to the falling of dust from the atmosphere, which at first was supposed to be of meteoric origin; but Professor Kjerulf decided that it was more likely to have been disseminated from some active volcano. The precise source was unknown; but from the direction of the wind, and the known conditions, it was suspected that some volcano in Iceland was concerned. This surmise has been confirmed by the more recent advices from that country, which report a very remarkable series of volcanic phenomena, first commenced by earthquakes, then followed by an eruption accompanied by dust and ashes. On March 29, 1875, the fall of the ashes was so excessive that it covered the eastern country sides, Jökuldal especially, with a coat six inches in thickness, and all that day, although elsewhere it was bright and sunny, the people were in absolute "pitch" darkness. Fountains and rivulets were dammed by the ashes, and every mountain stream ran dark and muddy between banks covered with drifts of ashes. The farmers fled out of the ash-covered country with their cattle, in search of pastures not yet destroyed by the scoria, but with what chance of saving their live stock does not appear.

There is no calculating the extent of this calamity, nor its effect upon the habitable portions of Iceland, although from present appearances it threatens to be extremely widespread.-3 A, May, 22, 1875, 649.

THE FIGURE OF THE EARTH.

Mr. Hind, of Nova Scotia, calls attention to the fact that the equatorial bulge of the earth's surface may have been much larger in earlier geological epochs than at the present day, and that Captain Clarke's and General Schubert's investigations, according to which the earth's equator is an

ellipse and not a circle, favor the idea that in these earlier epochs this ellipticity must have assumed the nature of a gradual change in the figure of the earth, in virtue of which a vast equatorial undulation has progressed with extreme slowness in an easterly and westerly direction.—12 A, X.,

166.

UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURES.

The sixth report of the committee on underground temperatures states that they have made a very interesting series of observations in the great well of La Chapelle, at Paris. There was a tolerably regular increase of temperature at the average rate of one degree Fahr. for every ninety-four feet, except for the very last portion of the well, where a sudden increase appeared to take place, giving a rate of about one degree for every twenty-five feet. A very elaborate calculation has been made by the engineers in charge of the well, which has shown that a large portion of this sudden increase of temperature must be attributed to the heat generated by the operation of boring the well. The total weight of the tool employed by them is 3000 kilogrammes, and the quantity of work converted into heat at every fall of this great weight through a distance of fifteen inches is sufficient to raise the temperature of the lower portion to nearly 100° Fahr., which heat is retained at the bottom of the well for many days, owing to the feeble conducting power of the surrounding rocks.-Report Brit. Assoc., 1873, 252.

"ICE CAVE" NEAR DOBSCHAU.

Dr. Joseph A. Krenner, of the National Museum of Buda-Pesth, gives an account of a visit to the famous ice cave near Dobschau, in the spring of 1873. It is located in the “Goellnitzer" valley, and is excavated in triassic limestone. From the entrance the trend of the cave is downward, a large mass of stratified ice, partly transparent, partly translucent, forming the floor of the higher and larger portions, while numerous stalactites and stalagmites of ice (the former hollow) ornament the ceiling and walls, forming at times exceedingly picturesque groups. Frozen waterfalls are found near the lower portions of the cave. The ice which serves