prominent aspects of the changes brought about by our rapid increase in population, the growth of our cities, and our transition from an agricultural and tool economy to an industrial and machine economy.

Three, at least, of these changes have momentous moral consequences. The first is that the inhabitant of the city is transplanted from the primitive environment of nature to the mechanical one of urban life. Field, forest, mountain, river, plants, animals, and the wholesome influences involved in their care and contemplation have gone out of his life. Change of season may now mean nothing more than an exchange of discomforts, or at most of clothing; the rising and setting of the sun, the progress of day into night, have lost their old meaning, while occupation is still further removed from that of his agricultural progenitors. The crowded schoolroom has usurped the place of the open field, and the work once done with the hand is now replaced by that done by the head. The second transformation brought about by the city life is that all that was best and morally most uplifting in the home has been dissolved, at least for the mass of the population. Once the home was the center of social pleasure for its members; now it is a dormitory where the weary workers of factory, shop, and trade gather to sleep. Once it was the busy and interesting workshop for young and old; now no grandam, wife, or maid whirls the humming wheel or fabricates the family wardrobe; no youth now mends the harness by the open hearth, or sharpens his tools for the morrow's toil, or cleans the implements for its sport. Dreary household drudgery is the ruin left from a former series of uplifting occupations. The city family, even with the well-to-do, is limited to its immediate members, not even a spare bed being available for a chance visitor. He who would visit his city relatives must go to the hotel. The higher spiritual activities formerly carried on in the home are now transferred to outside institutions or forgotten. The old-time country or village home has become a legend in the city and of this fact the city teacher must take account when she is reorganizing her ideals for the moral training of city children.

The third transformation, more momentous, perhaps, than either of the others, lies wholly in the industrial world and involves an almost total change of relation between employer and employed. The old personal relation of master to man has been changed to the impersonal one between money and the man. In other words, organized capital has usurped the place once held by an individual, be he feudal lord, landlord, or master mechanic. This means that the relations between employer and employed, once personal and intimate, are now financial and impersonal, while the relations among the laborers themselves,

once likewise personal and limited, are now mechanical and unlimited, as in wide-reaching labor unions. The old bonds of sympathy and mutual regard between man and man, and man and master, are broken, and in their place have come a new set of relations, some good, some bad, for which training according to the old moral ideals does not fully prepare us. The workman has dropped his tool to tend a machine; he has surrendered the old creation of wholes to drudge on parts; he has transformed the artist into the artisan.

What transformation is needed in our ideals of moral training when our pupil must live divorced from nature, in a family more than half dissolved, and as a mere link in our industrial chain? Manifestly the old imperatives must have a new filling before they will suffice for this triply altered environment.

Surely, the maxim, "Respect thy neighbor as thyself," should not be interpreted, "Break the head of the scab," or, "Destroy the property of the corporation," or, "Vote sympathetic strikes for the sake of helping distant workmen." "Serve the community in which thou livest" can hardly mean "Use men like cattle--a mere means to a financial end.” Capital not directed by conscience means a proletariat not governed by the fundamental laws of liberty and justice. The term proletariat is not so familiar here as it is in Europe. This class of people who have the power to do physical labor, but who possess nothing else, have in times. of prosperity a tolerable existence, but in times of financial depression they suffer, for capital has no employment for them, while the severance of the personal bond between employer and employed leaves them to starve or to seek relief from organized charity. It is an interesting problem for the statesman to decide how a true democracy can be maintained, when a large section of the voting population form a proletariat at the mercy of the fluctuating needs of corporate capital. Lincoln once declared that this government could not endure half slave and half free. That saying proved true. What greater warrant have we that this democracy can endure when great numbers of people have periodically not only the financial position but also the feelings of the proletariat ?

Though the school can perhaps do little directly to change economic conditions, it can at least help to make life still worth living, even for those to whom nature is a time-keeper, the home a dormitory, and the employer a bank account. There are at least three important ways in which one may enter into wholesome relations with his fellows, even in the modern city life. The first is religious communion through common feelings of reverence for the divine power and goodness as manifested in the affairs of nature and of man. These feelings are primitive, funda

mental and well-nigh universal where there has been any sort of a chance for normal development. They are dependent neither upon insight nor upon authority, but well up spontaneously in the mind and heart. Though the teacher is forbidden to teach either the creeds or the sacred history of any religion in the public school, the cultivation of the feelings of reverence for divine things may well be found among her ideals.

The next most universal means for an elevated moral life is found in and through art; not so much the art that hangs in museums as that which may well adorn the common life. The need of having the art ideals well to the front is apparent when we consider, first, that through them nature may be partially restored to him who has lost it, and second, that the industrial art which was abandoned when the workman artist become a factory artisan may to some extent be brought back to him. The Royal Prussian Commission of 1904 reported that the art work of our elementary schools has now no rival in the world. This is a cheering word, for it shows that in this field we are beginning to live up to our opportunities for good. There is hope that even the present city dormitory home may regain a part of the paradise lost when artistic adornment shall brighten its walls and equipment, and artistic creation shall take the place of the productive industries of the past. To this end we should teach not only art technique, but art feeling and appreciation in many things far beyond the range of the pupil's productive skill. To this end the education department at Cornell is now preparing a bulletin for the guidance of teachers in art appreciation.

The third great way whereby the moral life of the individual may be enlarged is through participation in the intellectual riches of the world as expressed in language, history, and science. Even modest amounts of these greatly aid to lift the individual above the hopeless condition of the proletarian, making an independent and reflective life possible. The study of history should show him what liberty has cost and is worth, though it may prove but a flickering lamp as a guide to his future political conduct. The constant injection of the contingent - the things that might have been otherwise — into the causal stream of history constantly diverts its channel; yet the youth may be trained to better judgment upon contingent matters, and to develop the sympathy that is sure to come when he is able to put himself in the place of the other man, to estimate aright the force of circumstances.

Through the study of the natural sciences knowledge and love of nature may be developed, while one of the causes that make the workman dependent upon the needs of capital may be removed, for it will enable him to keep abreast and even in advance of invention in his

department of life. With workmen whose minds are unexpanded by a knowledge of the laws of physics, the rule is: A new workman with a new machine. This means the relegation of the older employé to a lower type of work, to poorer pay and ultimate discharge. One labor leader, in bitter satire, proposed a by-law to his union to the effect that any workmen over forty-five years of age who hereafter loses his job shall forthwith be shot! If President Butler is right in his contention that natural science in education has not "made good" as an instrument of instruction, I am persuaded that one of the reasons is that the laboratory has become too much of a water-tight compartment, thus becoming divorced too completely from the busy world outside. How great is the inspiration for the future machinist in a first-hand examination of the countless aspects of modern machinery that the inventive genius of our country has produced! Similar practical application of schoolroom knowledge to life interests and activities will tend to give that flexibility to disposition and capacity so essential for ready adaptation to changing conditions.

This glimpse of the modern conditions that surround the child, brief and inadequate as it is, enables us to see that the problem of the adequate moral training of the young is complex and difficult. Here we have a being estranged from nature, and absolved from the restraints of local country or village life, where each knows the other and where customs, usages, festivals, fashions, and above all, steady life-sustaining occupations, all tend to encourage sobriety, health, and normalmoral life. Furthermore, estrangement from nature and freedom from local restraint are accompanied by a dissolving family life which no longer exerts in full degree its former uplifting and protecting influences; and finally, the decay of trade associations, the dissolution of the personal ties that once united man and master, have led to those loose impersonal relations between capital and labor that still further tend to retard and render difficult the moral upbuilding of the people.

Some of the ways in which this new ethical situation may be met by the teacher have been intimated. That there are many others that grow out of the relation of the individual to the various forms of society and the state I am well aware. Perhaps enough has been said to indicate the kind of efforts we must make, and to convince us that a new meaning must be read into the old moral imperatives that governed our fathers. Of this I am assured: we need not fear that the new wine will break the old bottles.

WAYS AND MEANS OF MORAL TRAINING IN THE

PUBLIC SCHOOLS

CLARENCE F. CARROLL, A. B.

SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, ROCHESTER, N. Y.

For centuries the child at school has been systematically robbed of his heritage of bodily freedom. Rigidity of position and dead silence have been the ideals most common. These inherited ideals are wholly immoral in their influence, and our first problem in morals calls for a complete change in theory and practice at this point.

I. Activity is the central force in early physical, mental, and moral development. The little child is tireless in his movement and play is the most important part of his early education. By some unaccountable error the school (and often the home) reversed this law of life and human development.

Froebel restored games, occupations, excursions, and co-operative tasks for children. In every reputable school system the kindergarten should be an important means of moral training. A good kindergarten affects powerfully the life of the child and the system, leavening the teaching force and the community.

In the grades each class should be divided into two or more groups. Under this arrangement each child is relieved for half the school session of the tension of the class recitation. At his seat, at the board, or at the work table, he experiences the most needed freedom in location and bodily attitude.

Directed, systematic gymnastics are another approved form of school activity. Foreign nations, notably Germany and Sweden, attempt nothing less than a complete physical reconstruction of every child through physical training. English and American children in cities are deteriorating rapidly in physique from lack of such systematic physical education.

Competitive inter-class and inter-school games are entirely practicable even in a city system. These competitive games enable every child to take a part. This is by far the most important consideration. In athletics as carried on in the American high school, the games are often an exhibition in which a few perform their parts for the amusement of the

mass.

The school athletic league should assume careful direction of these competitive games.

In every class room children should daily play some game of child