can be worse than writing at a small desk. When tables are too much elevated, the elbows are necessarily placed too high, the arms and shoulders are the same; while the spine, the neck, and the head, seem all brought together. This attitude is extremely detrimental to the figure, and contributes greatly to displace the shoulders. Therefore to correct round shoulders by loose clothing, and easy natural positions; to have plain chairs with backs; hair mattresses instead of feather beds; a bolster, but no pillows; tables two inches higher than the elbows; no arm chairs; no music so difficult as to necessitate awkward positions that may cause distortion of the spine; to watch over the general attitudes both day and night, and endeavour to render them easy and natural; to avoid long kneeling; and to give support to the back when necessary, are the rules to be followed in order to ensure the proper development of the human body.

As to the attitudes resulting from illness, of which we have noticed some symptoms, they require peculiar attention when depending on general weakness. Mechanical and gymnastic means could not be had recourse to unless there existed sufficient strength on the part of the patient to bear their application. The advice of an enlightened physician, who has made this branch of science his principal study, and who would take into consideration the constitution, the growth, and any accidental circumstances connected with

the case, should be sought, as it is not possible to lay down rules suited to every individual.

To resume what we have to say on attitudes. Parents must be perfectly aware, that the positions most likely to produce deviations are those contracted during intellectual education; so that it is principally while writing, drawing, harp or guitar playing, riding, reclining on a sofa, or lying in a bed with the head elevated, that spinal deviations most commonly arise, when children have any of the four diathesis we have sketched, or are of a weakly constitution; but as it is only when bad attitudes become habitual, that they leave strong impressions, and cause deformity, we may here make some remarks on habits, without which the influence of attitudes is but temporary.

CHAP. VIII.

Habits.

HABIT is a disposition contracted by a frequent repetition of the same acts, causing different modifications in the organization. All our organs are not equally subjected to the power of habit, and some are never in any way affected by it.

But habit may powerfully affect the organs of animal life;" and the functions," says Bichat, "strengthened or weakened, seem to assume different characters, according to the period in which they are exercised."

In youth, habit has the privilege of modifying the primitive constitution, and injuring it so powerfully, as to render it incurable, unless this same habit be not overpowered by a contrary habit, acting slowly and constantly in the same manner as the first.

Lamark considered the power of habit so great, that he supposed the difference existing between human beings had been gradually brought on by the constant effects of the same influence.

Organized bodies seem exclusively capable of contracting habits; "man," says Cabanis, "is peculiarly liable to receive impressions."

All physical habits are susceptible of modifica

tions; in the action of the organs, their peculiar inclinations, and characteristics of the living system, can be altered. "In short," says Cabanis, "it is certain, that the mode of life, whether it be good or bad, may either considerably improve or injure the physical constitution."

By the influence of habit, each organ may be strengthened or weakened; the impressions creating divers emotions, and which have a continual tendency to introduce new feelings, are also liable to undergo most striking changes. These observations relate to general habits; but to keep within the limits of our subject, which is intended to examine the influence of habit on the general development of individuals, we must observe, that no constitution, however strong, could combat the effect of bad attitudes which had become habitual. The slightest examination will suffice to prove this fact.

There are organs and functions that may be termed intermittent, and which are subjected to the power of habit; but there are others in continual activity; thus circulation, respiration, nutrition, never cease their functions; sleeping or waking, the heart of every individual beats; the air penetrates into the lungs, and makes them expand, nutrition takes place, there is a constant work of assimilation and secretion; the nutritive particles may deviate from their natural course, but their assimilating action cannot be destroyed.

If an awkward position be maintained during a long drawing or music lesson, the body inclined to one side, and the spine deviated, what occurs? The functions of nutrition are continued, but the side of the body that is bent, offers a striking particularity in order to effect a bend, the vertebræ press on the cartilages that separate them; and as the cartilages on the inclined side are far more pressed than those on the opposite side, nutrition only takes place in one part; the nutritive particles are carried on the opposite side, where nothing occurs to prevent their assimilation; while on the confined side they cannot reach their destination. This phenomenon is often observed in ankilosis, and ossification of the fractures.

It is in youth, when a nutritive strength predominates, that habit has so powerful an influence, because the organs not having reached their full development, are more flexible, have less firmness, and receive a greater portion of nutritive materials.

One of the most striking effects of habit is exemplified in conjurors' children, who throw themselves back, and bend their spine in a circular manner, notwithstanding the obstacles offered by the natural conformation of the vertebræ, the spinal apophyses and ligaments.

All that has been said respecting attitudes, may be applied to habits; temporary attitudes leave no trace, but actions frequently repeated, constitute habit, which may appropriately be termed second nature.