and Greek manuscripts written in and since the eleventh century are in small letters, and greatly resemble each other, though some few exceptions occur to the contrary. Flourished letters rarely occur in Greek manuscripts of the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. The fac-similes of the Alexandrian and other manuscripts, given in the subsequent pages of this work, will furnish the reader with a tolerably correct idea of the various styles of Greek writing which obtained at different periods between the sixth and the fourteenth centuries.

The most antient manuscripts are written without accents, spirits, or any separation of the words; nor was it until after the ninth century that the copyists began to leave spaces between the words. Michaelis, after Wetstein, ascribes the insertion of accents to Euthalius bishop of Sulca in Egypt, A. D. 458.2

III. Nearly the same mode of spelling obtains in antient manuscripts which prevails in Greek printed books; but, even in the earliest manuscripts, we meet with some words that are abbreviated by putting the first and last letters, and sometimes also the middle letter, for an entire word, and drawing a line over the top: thus GC, KC, IC, XC, ΥΣ, ΣΗΡ, ΙΗΛ, or ΙΣΗΛ, ΠΝΛ, ΠΗΡ, ΜΗΡ, ΟΥΝΟΣ, ΑΝΟΣ, ΙΛΗΜ, ΔΑΔ, respectively denote Θεος God, Κύριος Lord, Ιησους Jesus, Χριςος Christ, Υιος a son, Σωτης Saviour, Ισραηλ Israel, Ivevpa spirit, Пarng father, Mnrng mother, Ougavos heaven, Avθρωπος man, Ιερουσαλημ Jerusalem, Δαυιδ David. At the beginning of a new book, which always commences at the top of a page, the first three, four, or five lines are frequently written in vermilion; and, with the exception of the Alexandrian and Vatican manuscripts, all the most antient codices now extant have the Eusebian κεφαλαια and τιτλοι, of which we have given an account in a subsequent chapter.4

Very few manuscripts contain the whole either of the Old or of the New Testament. By far the greater part have only the four Gospels, because they were most frequently read in the churches; others comprise only the Acts of the Apostles and the Catholic Epistles; others, again, have the Acts, and St. Paul's Epistles; and a very few contain the Apocalypse. Almost all of them, especially the more antient manuscripts, are imperfect, either from the injuries of time, or from neglect.5

All manuscripts, the most antient not excepted, have erasures and 1 Wetstein's Prolegomena to his edition of the Greek Testament, vol. i. pp. 1— 3. Astle on the Origin of Writing, pp. 60-76. 2d edit. Wetstein has given an alphabet from various Greek manuscripts, and Astle has illustrated his observations with several very fine engravings.

2 Wetstein, Proleg. p. 73. Michaelis, vol. ii. pp. 519-524.

3 Concerning Greek Abbreviations, see Montfaucon's Paleographia Græca, pp. 345-370. Mr. Astle has also given a specimen of Greek abbreviations from two Psalters. On Writing, p. 76. plate vi.

4 See Part I. Chap. IV. infra.

5 The Codex Cottonianus, for instance, when perfect, contained only the Book of Genesis; the Codex Cæsareus contains only part of the same book, together with a fragment of the Gospel of Luke: the Alexandrian manuscript wants the first twenty-four chapters of Saint Matthew's Gospel; and the Codex Beza contains only the four Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles.

corrections; which, however, were not always effected so dexterously, but that the original writing may sometimes be seen. Where these alterations have been made by the copyist of the manuscript (à prima manu, as it is termed), they are preferable to those made by later hands, or à secundâ manu. These erasures were sometimes made by drawing a line through the word, or, what is tenfold worse, by the penknife. But, besides these modes of obliteration, the copyist frequently blotted out the old writing with a sponge, and wrote other words in lieu of it: nor was this practice confined to a single letter or word, as may be seen in the Codex Beza.1 Authentic instances are on record, in which whole books have been thus obliterated, and other writing has been substituted in the place of the manuscript so blotted out: but where the writing was already faded through age, they preserved their transcriptions without further erasure. IV. These manuscripts are termed Codices Palimpsesti or Rescripti. Before the invention of paper, the great scarcity of parchment in different places induced many persons to obliterate the works of antient writers, in order to transcribe their own or those of some other favourite author in their place: hence, doubtless, the works of many eminent writers have perished, and particularly those of the greatest antiquity; for such, as were comparatively recent, were transcribed, to satisfy the immediate demand; while those, which were already dim with age, were erased. It was for a long time thought, that this destructive practice was confined to the eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries, and that it chiefly prevailed among the Greeks: it must, in fact, be considered as the consequence of the barbarism which overspread those dark ages of ignorance; but this destructive operation was likewise practised by the Latins, and is also of a more remote date than has usually been supposed.

In general, a Codex Rescriptus is easily known, as it rarely happens that the former writing is so completely erased, as not to exhibit some traces in a few instances, both writings are legible. Many such manuscripts are preserved in the library of the British Museum. Montfaucon found a manuscript in the Colbert Library, which had been written about the eighth century, and originally contained the works of St. Dionysius: new matter had been written over it, three or four centuries afterwards, and both continued legible.3 Muratori saw in the Ambrosian library a manuscript comprising the works of the venerable Bede, the writing of which was from eight to nine hundred years old, and which had been substituted for another upwards of a thousand years old. Notwithstanding the efforts which had been made to erase the latter, some phrases could be deciphered, which

1 Wetstein's Prolegomena, pp. 3-8. Griesbach has discovered the hands of FIVE different correctors in the Codex Claromontanus. See his Symbola Critica, tom. ii. pp. 32-52.

2 Peignot, Essai sur l'Histoire de Parchemin, p. 83, et seq.

3 Paleogr. Græc. pp. 231. 233. The greater part of the manuscripts on parchment, which Montfaucon had seen, he affirms, were written on parchment, from which some former treatise had been erased, except in those of a verv antient date. Mem. de l'Acad. de Inscript. tom. ix. p. 325.

indicated it to be an antient pontifical. The indefatigable researches of signor Angelo Maï (who has recently been appointed the principal keeper of the Vatican Library at Rome) have discovered several valuable remains of biblical and classical literature in the Ambrosian Library at Milan;2 and a short account of some of the principal Codices Rescripti of the New Testament, or of parts thereof, will be found in the sequel of this section.

V. The total number of manuscripts of the New Testament (whether they have been transmitted to us entire or in fragments), which are known to have been wholly or partially collated, amounts nearly to five hundred; but this number forms only a small part of the manuscripts found in public and private libraries. The result of these collations has shown that certain manuscripts have an affinity to each other, and that their text is distinguished from that of others by characteristic marks; and eminent critics, (particularly Griesbach, who devoted the whole of his life to sacred criticism), after diligently comparing the quotations from the New Testament in the writings of Clement of Alexandria and of Origen with those made by Tertullian and Cyprian, have ascertained that, so early as the third century, there were in existence two families, recensions, or editions of manuscripts, or, in other words, two entirely different texts of the New Testament." Michaelis has observed that, as different countries had different versions according to their respective languages, their manuscripts naturally resembled their respective versions, as these versions, generally speaking, were made from such manuscripts as were in common use. Four different systems of recensions or editions have been proposed, viz. by Griesbach and Michaelis, by Scholz, by Matthæi, and by Mr. Nolan.

1. The basis of Griesbach's system is, the division of the Greek manuscripts of the New Testament into three classes, each of which is considered as an independent witness for the various readings which it contains. The value of a reading, so far as manuscript authority is regarded, is decided by Griesbach, not according to the individual manuscript in which it is found, but according to the number of classes by which it is supported. The classes, under which he arranges all the Greek manuscripts are the following, viz. 1. The Alexandrine; 2. The Occidental or Western; and 3. The Byzantine or Oriental, to which Michaelis has added 4. The Edessene. To each of these are given the appellation of recension or edition, as we commonly say of printed books.

1 Muratori. Antiq. Ital. tom. iii. diss. 43. col. 833, 834.

2 See a brief notice of signor Maï's discovery of a Codex Rescriptus of Saint Paul's Epistles, in pp. 93, 94. infra, of the present volume.

3 Bengel expressed this relationship or affinity between manuscripts by the term family. (Introd. ad Crisin N. T. § 27—30.) Semler (Apparatus ad Liberalem Novi Testamenti Interpretationem, p. 45.) and Griesbach (Symbole Criticæ, tom. i. p. cxviii.) use the term recensio, recension, that is, edition, which last term is adopted by Michaelis, vol. ii. p. 173.

4 In the second volume of Griesbach's Symbole Criticæ (pp. 229–620.), there is a laborious collation of the quotations from the New Testament, made by Origen and Clement of Alexandria, with the Vulgate or common Greek Text.

1. The first class or ALEXANDRINE RECENSION, which is also called the EGYPTIAN Recension, comprises those manuscripts, which, in remarkable and characteristic readings, agree with the quotations of the early Alexandrine writers, particularly Origen and Clement of Alexandria. After them, this recension was adopted by the Egyptian Greeks.

To this class Griesbach refers the Codex Alexandrinus,1 noted by the letter A., but in the epistles of St. Paul only; and also B. the Vatican manuscript.2 To this class also Dr. Scholz refers C., the Codex Ephremi ;3 L. the Codex Regius 62, an imperfect manuscript of the four Gospels of the eighth century, collated by Wetstein and Griesbach; P. the Guelpherbytanus A., a Codex Rescriptus of the sixth century, comprising fragments of the four Gospels; Q. the Guelpherbytanus B., also a Codex Rescriptus of the same date, and containing some fragments of Luke and John; T. the Codex Borgiæ I., containing a Greek Sahidic version of John vi. 28-67. vii. 6. — viii. 31., executed in the fourth century; Griesb. 22. the Codex Regius 72., a fragment of Matt. i. 1. ii. 2., written in the eleventh century; Griesb. 33. the Codex Regius 14., a mutilated MS. of the Old and New Testament, of the eleventh century; Griesb. 102. the Codex Medicæus, which comprises from Matt. xxiv. to Mark viii. 1.: and the Codex Regius 305, a MS. of the thirteenth century.4 The Alexandrine Recension is followed by the Coptico-Memphitic, Coptico-Basmuric, Coptico-Sahidic, Ethiopic, Armenian, and the Syro-Philoxenian versions; and it is the text cited by the fathers, Eusebius, Anastasius, Ammonius, Didymus, Cyril of Alexandria, Marcus, Macarius, Cosmas Indicopleustes, Nonnus, Isidore of Pelusium, Theodore of Pelusium, and frequently also by Chrysostom.

2. The OCCIDENTAL or WESTERN EDITION is that which was adopted by the Christians of Africa (especially by Tertullian and Cyprian), Italy, Gaul, and the west of Europe generally.

According to Griesbach it is followed in A. the Codex Alexandrinus, in the Acts of the Apostles, and the Catholic Epistles; and according to Dr. Scholz, in D. the Codex Bezæ or Cantabrigiensis ;5 in the Codex Regius 314, a MS. of the eighth century, containing Luke ix. 36-47. and x. 12-22.; Griesb. 1. (Basileensis ;) Griesb. 13. the Codex Regius 50, a mutilated MS. of the twelfth century, collated for Birch's edition of the four Gospels; Griesb. 28. the Codex Regius 379, a MS. of the eleventh century; Griesb. 69. the Codex Leicestrensis, and 124, the Codex Vindobonensis (Lambecii 31. ;7) Griesb. 131. the Codex Vaticanus 360, a MS. of the eleventh century, collated by Birch; Griesb. 157. the Codex Vaticanus

1 See an account of this MS. in pp. 66-73. infra.

2 Described pp. 74-77. infra.

3 See p. 89. infra. The letters and figures, above used, are those employed by Griesbach, to denote the several manuscripts collated or consulted by him for his edition of the New Testament. They are explained in the Prolegomena to his first volume.

4 The manuscripts in the Royal Library at Paris are generally known by the appellation of Codices Regii.

5 See pp. 85-89. infra.

6 See P. 106. infra. 7 See a notice of these two MSS. in pp. 109, 110. infra.

2, a MS. of the twelfth century, also collated by Birch; the Codex Regius 177, containing the four Gospels, with very copious scholia, written (Dr. Scholz thinks) in the eleventh century; and in the Codex Regius 375, containing lessons from the New Testament, excepting the Revelation, and written early in the eleventh century: in the Gospels, it very seldom differs from the Codex Bezæ, but in the Acts of the Apostles and in the Epistles, it chiefly agrees with the Alexandrine Recension. With these manuscripts sometimes harmonise the Sahidic Version, made in the fourth century, the Syriac Version of Jerusalem, and the readings in the margin of the Syro-Philoxenian Version; as also the Ante-Hieronymian or Old Latin Versions, which were in use before the Vulgate Version.

The Western Edition was cited by the African fathers, Tertullian, Cyprian, Lactantius, Victorinus, Augustine, and by the unknown author of the book against Fulgentius the Donatist; by the Italic fathers, Zeno of Verona, Gaudentius of Brescia, Chromatius of Aquileia, Ambrose, the author of certain pieces which are attributed to that writer, Rufinus, the author of the Opus Imperfectum on St. Matthew, Gregory surnamed the Great, and Lucifer Bishop of Cagliari; and by the Gallic fathers, Irenæus, Hilary, Julius Firmicus Maternus, Phœbadius (a Spaniard) Bishop of Agen, Juvencus, and by the Mozarabic Ritual. With this edition also coincides the Vulgate Latin Version, which is followed by Isidore bishop of Seville, Remigius, Bede, Rabanus Maurus, Haymo, Anselm, Pietro Damiani, Bernard, and all subsequent writers in communion with the Latin church for the last thousand years, as well as by the Lectionaries, Breviaries, Antient Missals, Acts of the Martyrs, and other ecclesiastical books of that church.1

3. Towards the end of the fourth century, and during the fifth and sixth centuries, critics have observed a text differing from the two first, and which they call the BYZANTINE or ORIENTAL RECENSION or Edition, because it was in general use at Constantinople, after that city became the capital and metropolitan see of the eastern empire.

With this edition are closely allied those of the neighbouring provinces, whose inhabitants were subject to the spiritual jurisdiction of the patriarch of Constantinople.2 The readings of the Byzantine Recension are those which are most commonly found in the Kon Exdodis, or printed Vulgate Greek Text, and are also most numerous in the existing manuscripts which correspond to it. Griesbach reckons upwards of one hundred manuscripts of this class, which minutely harmonise with each other. On account of the many alterations, that were unavoidably made in the long interval between the fourth and the fifteenth centuries, Michaelis proposes to divide the Byzantine edition into antient and modern; but he does not specify

1 Scholz, Cure Criticæ in Historiam Textus Evangeliorum, pp. 27-30. 2 Michaelis remarks that the greatest number of manuscripts written on Mount Athos are evidently of the Byzantine edition; and he thinks it probable that almost all the Moscow manuscripts, of which M. Matthæi has given extracts, belong to this edition. As the valuable manuscripts collected by the late learned Professor Carlyle were obtained in Syria, Constantinople, and the islands of the Levant, it is probable, whenever they shall be collated, that they will be found to coincide with the Byzantine recension. These manuscripts are preserved in the Archiepiscopal Library at Lambeth, and are described infra, pp. 104, 105.