He wrote. Yet he was twelve years of age before he could read, and had grown to manhood before he had mastered Latin. His writings are considered worthy of a place among the victories of the human intellect. Alfred served gloriously in the armies of his brothers. The eldest two, Ethelbald and Ethelbert, reigned concurrently. Ethelbert I. ruled Kent, Sussex, and Essex, the portion left for their father's administration during the last two years of his life. Ethelbald and Ethelbert soon followed their father, Ethelwulf, to the tomb. Ethelred I., his third son, became head of the royal family. Alfred remained content. The assumption of authority in any form was not tempting. He was content to serve under his brother, Ethelred I. The life of Ethelred I. was soon ended. Alfred was called on by the country to act as king, in accordance with the Saxon laws. Alfred left estates to Æthelm and Athelwold, each of them designated my brother's son." Ethelbert appears to have been the father of both. The Saxon law of succession to the throne, when the heir was an infant, was, that the next personal relative, capable of discharging the duties of royalty, should take the reins of government, and be acknowledged king. The reason assigned for this law, or for its observance, was the danger to which the state was exposed by the invasions of the Danes, A.D. 871. Alfred was born A.D. 849. He was 22 years of age when he came to the throne. 66 Alfred's first attempt against the Danes was at Wilton, Wilts, the seat of the west Saxon sovereigns. The town has one street, and is situated near the confluence of the Nadder and the Wily, from the latter of which it derives its name. It is a town of great antiquity, and is supposed to have been the Caer Guilan or chief seat of the British prince Caroilius. It was subsequently the capital of the west Saxon sovereigns. A.D. 1003, Sweyn, king of Denmark, burnt this town, and laid waste all the western counties of England, in revenge for Ethelred II.'s (the unready) inhuman massacre of the Danes about two years previous. A.D. 1143.-King Stephen was forced to flee from the town, leaving behind him his troops and baggage. The town was given up to pillage and was set on fire by the conquerors. The earl of Gloucester (her natural brother), as commander of the forces in favour of the empress Maud or Matilda, who was the legitimate daughter of Henry I., whilst the earl of Gloucester was the illegitimate son of Henry I. Wilton recovered from the calamity, but began to decline in the following reign, Henry II. Queen Elizabeth visited the town, A.D. 1579. The court resided in Wilton for some time. Queen Elizabeth died, A.D. 1603. Wilton is celebrated for carpets. Wilton was the scene of the Danish victory over Alfred. Various ill successes followed. Haughtiness and tyranny were manifested in Alfred. To these blemishes he added one more fatal-a temporising disposition. The people were alienated. His own kinsman, St. Neot, rebuked him for these defects, and His own warned him of their evil consequences. passions and the Scandinavian rovers were equally masters of Alfred. He felt the violence of the storm; no man stood by him. He fled. His place of retreat was a small thickly-wooded spot in Somersetshire, rendered almost inaccessible by water and morasses. In this memorable Isle of Athenley he sought shelter and concealment with one of the royal herdsmen. The mistress did not know him. The old story represents the mistress as expecting him to watch some cakes baking by the fire, and as being very angry when she found that he had let them burn. "So, man, what! slack and blind when the cakes want a turn! you're greedy when they smoke upon the board." Alfred was out of sight; not out of mind. He had friends. They knew his retreat. With them he held communication. His advices were followed. Various bands were formed. The Danes felt that no calculation could provide for their defence against attacks so numerous and so unexpected. The spirit of Alfred's people revived. The loser of the victory at Wilton and his subsequent misfortunes were lost in the direction of their recent attacks upon the Danes, and in their late successes. The time had come. seen. Alfred must leave his retreat. He appeared in the Danish camp as an unknown wandering minstrel. The Danes were charmed by his music and his legendary lore. He saw, yet was not Few military generals have ever engaged in the combat which must decide their fate with advantages equal to those which Alfred had thus secured to himself A.D. 878. Obstinate and sanguinary was the fight. The valour of the Anglo-Saxon troops was desperate. The skill of Alfred guided their valour. The victory was theirs. Alfred had regained all which he had lost. The foe retired within a strong fortification. At its base Alfred maintained a strict blockade. In fourteen days the Danes capitulated on condition of receiving baptism, and of settling, as a peaceful colony, in the eastern counties. Gōthrun was the Danish king. He received baptism in common with his people. Alfred's fears of invading Norsemen may have continued to make him uneasy and watchful, but his victory had won for him the titles of "Father of his people," and "Glory of his age." When students enter into active and professional life they generally discontinue their studious habits, and unlearn in active life those lessons of classic lore which early days had taught them. Alfred has set an example, to all students, of patient industry in the pursuit of learning. In all his manifold engagements he endeavoured to improve his mind. He set before himself a great undertaking-the formation. of a vernacular literature. He persevered; and in a considerable degree he accomplished his wise and generous intention. Alfred translated Bede's Latin Ecclesiastical History into the vernacular. He translated into the vernacular large selections from the historical works of Orosius, with historical matter from other sources. He translated into the verna He cular Boethius on the Consolation of Philosophy. He sought to remedy the gross illiteracy of his clergy by translating for their use Pope Gregory's Pastoral, a text book in the apportionment of penance. translated also, perhaps, only such portions of holy Scripture as suited his necessities as a private christian. He was employed in translating the Psalms when the hand of death warned him to depart hence, for "this is not thy rest." He had been a sickly and a suffering child. As he approached manhood he dreaded leprosy or blindness, or some other such infirmity which must render him useless to society and to the world. The gross and prolonged festivity which celebrated his nuptials disordered his system. Internal cancer is supposed to have been the cause of all his bodily suffering. He died, A.D. 901, aged 52 years. The secret of success is the right division of time. Alfred felt this, and provided a specific employment for every coming hour. He divided the natural day into three equal portions thus:- 1. One for sleep and refreshment. 3. One for God's especial service. Under the head of "God's especial service" he included his religious exercises, and those literary labours which he considered the most powerful means of dispensing the divine light of gospel truth. They had no measure of time in those days except what a close observation of the sun enabled them to form. Alfred ordered wax candles to be made of equal weight, each twelve inches long, every inch being distinctly marked and numbered. He was forced to invent a covering to save his candles from the wind, both in his palace and in his tent. He accomplished this by fitting thin plates of horn into a wooden frame-work. (The stable lantern). He was enabled by the half-transparent horn to watch the progress of his candles. Thus we must understand that the old stable lanterns owed their origin to Alfred the Great. The Saxon kings supported their households and entertained their guests by the produce of the royal domains. Alfred became a very great farmer. Money must have been very scarce. Yet Alfred devoted one-half of his money to religion and learning. 1. One-fourth of this half was distributed in alms. 2. One-fourth was paid to the monasteries of Athelney and Shaftesbury, founded by himself. 3. One-fourth was used in promoting education at Oxford; and 4. The last fourth was reserved for monastic establishments, either abroad or at home. The remaining half of his revenues Alfred divided into three portions: 1. The first portion paid his officers. 2. The second portion paid the expenses of buildings and of the mechanical arts. 3. The third portion was expended upon those learned foreigners whom he sought for his own ignorant and unpolished country. Alfred confirmed the sanctions of his more approved predecessors. He made a digest of the laws of Ina, king of Wessex, and of Offa, king of Mercia, and of Athelbert, the first Christian sovereign of Kent. He submitted this digest of laws to his legislature and obtained a solemn confirmation of it. Alfred stipulated with Gothrun, or Godrun, for the payment of tithes-Rome-shot, light-shot, and plough-shot-providing against disobedience by pecuniary fines. The civil laws were thus protecting the property which those laws assigned to the clergy for their support, and for the maintenance of religious worship. Alfred patronized John Scotus Erigena, who was a determined opposer of the doctrine of transubstantiation. Alfred endeavoured to improve the condition of the slaves-called churls or villains. This slavery was a disgrace to the old Saxon government. The laws were so respected in Alfred's time, that when golden bracelets were hung by the public highway no man touched them. Alfred sent a mission to carry alms to the Christians in India. Dr. Buchanan has given an account of these Christians in India. They were a church, independent of all other churches, from the age of the apostles, and are said to be the descendants of those to whom St. Thomas preached the gospel, who received the word of the Lord as preached to them by the apostle, and who were formed into a church under his direction. VII. Edward the Elder succeeded his father Alfred, A.D. 901. According to Malmesbury, Formosus, the Roman Pontiff, sent an epistle into England cursing and excommunicating the king with all his people, because the whole of Wessex had been destitute of bishops fully seven years. Edward is represented as summoning a Synod, and Plegmund, the archbishop of Canterbury, as presiding. The decree of the Synod was made for the filling up of the vacant bishoprics, and for creating three new bishoprics. The primate is then represented as proceeding to Rome with presents, laying the Synod's decree at the feet of the Pope, obtaining his approbation, and consecrating seven bishops in one day. We are informed that Formosus sent this letter into England, a.d. 904. That Pontiff had died, A.D. 896, eight years previously. 896, eight years previously. He did not rest quietly in his grave. His successor, Stephen, rescinded his decrees, disinterred his corpse, stripped it of the pontifical robes, and buried it ignominiously amongst laymen. The two fingers of Formosus, used in consecration, were cut off and thrown into the Tiber. These insults to the body of Formosus happened one year after his death, A.D. 897. Baronius suspected a mistake in Malmesbury's account, but was unwilling to give up the story of Formōsus' letter, as it serves his purpose in describing the power of the Roman Pontiff. He would go back ten years. Alfred was then on the throne; not his son Edward the Elder. Two of the vacancies did not occur for five years after A.D. 904. Malmesbury's account, therefore, must be considered as unworthy of belief; Edward the Elder was succeeded by his eldest but illegitimate son. able," because England enjoyed peace during his reign. His barge was rowed on the river Dee by the king of Man, and by several Welsh and Scottish chieftains, while he himself sat at the helm. He made Dunstan archbishop of Canterbury, and has received praise from Dunstan. Elfrida was heiress of Devonshire. She was famed for beauty. Edgar sent his friend Ethelwald to see the lady, and to return with a true report of what he saw. He declared that reports of her beauty were false, but that he felt disposed, if the king would sanction it, to have her for his wife. The marriage was allowed. Edgar found soon after that Ethelwald had deceived him. The result was Ethelwald was murdered, and Edgar married Elfrida, the widow. Edgar completely extirpated the wolves from England. He reigned about sixteen years, and was succeeded by XIII. Edward, his son by a former wife. This king is known by the name of Edward the Martyr. Edward, when hunting, had stopped at Corfe Castle, in Dorsetshire, situated in what is termed the Isle of Purbeck. The town derives its name from the castle, built previously to the year 980. It is not noticed in the Doomsday Book. It could not have been considerable before the conquest. When Edward was drinking from a cup handed to him by his father's widow, one of her servants, by her order, stabbed him as he sat upon his horse. The horse ran away. The dead body of the king was dragged along the ground, and was much disfigured. He had not completed a three years' reign. He was succeeded by Elfrida's son. XIV. A.D. 978.-Ethelred II., called the Unready, because he was not able to make an efficient resistance to the Danes, now everywhere rising against their Saxon rulers. Ethelred purchased the departure of the hordes of Danes who arrived in England. He found that this plan encouraged fresh arrivals. planned, and caused to be executed with the most savage cruelty, a massacre of the Danes settled in England. He Sweyne and Anlaf, kings of Denmark and Norway, arrived in England at the head of numerous hordes of their subjects. Ethelred fled to Richard, duke of Normandy, whose sister, Emma, he had married. 1. Sweyne, A.D. 1013, was proclaimed king of England. Sweyne soon died. Ethelred returned to England. He was unable to contend against Canute, the son of Sweyne. Ethelred died, A.D. 1016, shortly after his return. Ethelred the Unready left a son, who succeeded him. XV. Edmund, surnamed Ironside. He strove with great courage and skill to recover his inheritance. He was defeated at Essenden, in Herts, and afterwards was basely murdered, A.D. 1016. 2. Canute, A.D. 1016, became king of England. He was king of Denmark and Norway, as well as king of England. He reigned twenty years. He sent out of the kingdom the two sons of Edmund Ironside. The Dane, to whom they were He entrusted, was instructed to secure their death. failed to execute his commission. Solomon, king of Hungary, received them. One of them, called Edward the Outlaw, on account of his misfortunes, married the queen's sister, and became the father of Edgar Atheling and Margaret, afterwards queen of Scotland. Ethelred the Unready had two sons by Emma, his second wife, Alfred and Edward. Canute prevailed on Emma to marry him. Their child must succeed to the crown of England. Canute was called "The Great." His courtiers flattered him. He reproved them. They had likened his power to that of God. They were on the shore. Canute ordered a chair to be brought. He sat upon it, and ordered the waves to retire. The water had surrounded him. He then declared that, "No power can be likened to that of God, who alone can say to the sea, "Thus far shalt thou go and no farther." Canute died, A.D. 1036. He left three sons: 1. Sweyne, king of Norway. 2. Hardicanute, settled already on the throne of Denmark. This was his son by Emma. 3. Harold, surnamed Harefoot. Hardicanute being the son of Emma, had superior claims, according to their father's marriage settlement with Emma. 3. Harold, A.D. 1036, surnamed Harefoot, succeeded to the crown of England. Harold disgraced his brief reign of four years by the murder of Alfred, his stepmother's son by Ethelred the Unready. Alfred and Edward came to England to see their mother, now a second time a widow. Earl Godwin assisted Harold in this murderous undertaking. Alfred was seized in the castle of Guildford. He died in consequence of the cruel treatment which he received. Edward escaped. Harold died, A.D. 1039. 4. Hardicanute became king of England A.D. 1039.— He was remarkable for brutal intemperance. He died after a reign of two years. The Saxon line was restored in the person of Edward, who escaped the fate of his brother Alfred, A.D. 1041. XVI. A.D. 1041.-Edward, called Saint and Confessor, secured the interest of Earl Godwin by marrying his daughter, Agitha. In her walks she frequently met the scholars of the Westminster school, put questions to them, and rewarded them with some piece of silver, and then sent them to the palace buttery for some refreshment. Edward did not cohabit with his wife, Agitha. The result was, he had no heir. His piety was gross and unjustifiable superstition. Edward forwarded the interests of foreign churchmen. He was childless. Edgar Atheling was a prince of feeble character. These circumstances encouraged Harold, a son of Earl Godwin, a descendant of the Danish kings, to adopt such plans as would secure to himself the crown of England. In this reign Siward, earl of Northumberland, was sent to assist Malcolm Canmore, king of Scotland, against Macbeth, who had murdered Malcolm's father, Duncan, and had usurped his throne. From this history Shakspeare takes the plot of his tragedy of Macbeth. Edward founded Westminster Abbey, in which all the kings of England have been crowned since the time of the founder of the Abbey. Edward King 17. Harold. Doubtful whether of the Saxon or Danish kings. Killed at the battle of Hastings, 1066. I. Theodore, A.D. 669.-Vitalian, then Pope, determined to try whether the Anglo-Saxons would receive an archbishop nominated by himself. He chose Theodore, an able and learned monk, aged sixty-six years, and born at Tarsus, in Cilicia. Former nominations to Anglo-Saxon sees had been domestic. Theodore doubted his reception, and, after his consecration, spent some time in Gaul. The insular princes were tired by parties incessantly contending. They received Theodore gladly, and conceded to him that primacy over the whole AngloSaxon church coveted by Augustine in vain, and after his death considered unattainable. Theodore is regarded as the parent of Anglo-Saxon literature. His coadjutor, Adrian, born in Africa, a scholar and an indefatigable student, aided Theodore in his efforts to improve the literary condition of England. Adrian was known as a member of a Campanian monastic fraternity. The pope wished him to accept Canterbury. He refused, but recommended Theodore. He also would have refused, unless his friend Adrian had consented to accompany him. These two admirable foreigners brought some valuable books into England. Theodore brought over with him Josephus, Homer, and perhaps other authors. Many journeys to Rome were made in search of books [manuscripts] for the increase of the stock already attained. The acquisition of a library began to be the much desired object of every monastery. Theodore and Adrian instituted schools, and endeavoured to spread information on every side. Alcuin eventually transplanted their school into Gaul, where it gave a new and lasting impulse to civilization. Theodore had his learned labours. He did not neglect his active duties. In his extensive journeys he everywhere urged uniformity with Rome. The case of Wilfrid was brought before him. Wilfrid represented Chad as an intruder. Theodore decided that Chad had been uncanonically consecrated. Chad felt no disposition to dispute. "He had been unwillingly drawn," he said, "from his beloved abbey of Lastingham, and thither he should again gladly retire." Chad had his desire, but did not long enjoy his monastic retreat. Jaruman, the Mercian bishop, died. The Mercian king wished for Chad. Theodore consecrated him, and Chad became bishop of Mercia. Litchfield Cathedral may be considered as having its origin in the zealous efforts of Chad to spread the Christian religion amongst the people of Mercia. He was consecrated bishop of Mercia, A.D. 669. Wilfrid was again bishop of Northumbria, which extended into the country of Oswy's Pictish subjects. Theodore was guided by his Grecian-Asiatic education in planning a parochial clergy. Under royal sanction he followed Justinian in offering the perpetual patronage of churches as an encouragement for their erection. Theodore's system had been in existence for ages before every English estate had the benefit of his system in the possession of a parish church and of a parochial clergy. This lingering progress has thrown much obscurity around the origin of parishes. The sizes of parishes are unequal. The existing rights of parishes, like to their sizes, may be accounted for by the principle of their formation. A.D 690, Theodore died at the great age of eighty-eight years. II. Dunstan.-From the death of Athelstan to the conquest, from A.D. 940 to A.D. 1066, a period of 126 years, is marked by a controversy which agitated every branch of society. 1. Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury; 2. Ethelwold, bishop of Winchester; 3. Oswald, bishop of Worcester, and Odo's nephew; these three (1) Ďunstan, (2) Ethelwold, and (3) Oswald, formed a triumvirate, and made the monastic system the great business of their lives, to revive, to reform, and to establish it in England. A.D. 970. The leading authority in the scheme, and in the execution of the scheme of monachism in England, was Dunstan. The eastern church had been early smitten with admiration of monkish devotees. The western church was easily infected by the example of her elder sister. The fifth century produced Benedict, an Italian monk, a monastic patriarch of the western church. The system of Benedict had made extensive progress abroad before it attracted any notice in England. Wilfrid has no claim to its introduction into England. No single Benedictine monastery had arisen in England from his efforts. Alfred founded his religious house at Athenley. He was forced to people it with foreigners, with a motley group of monkish inmates from every quarter. Scandinavian piracy was assigned as the reason why the Anglo-Saxons had so little taste for monachism. A complete monastic triumph was delayed till after the Norman Conquest. The struggle which achieved the triumph originated in the patience, energy, and address of one celebrated individual. Dunstan was born in the reign of Athelstan, perhaps in the year of Athelstan's accession, A.D. 925. It was, perhaps, earlier. Dunstan's father was named Herstan. His mother was named Kynedrid. They were high among the nobility of Wessex. They lived near to Glastonbury. The character of Glastonbury was formed by the fishy waters which guarded it on every side. It was a scene of solemn and picturesque seclusion. Avalon was traditional-a holy isle. It was a royal domain. Its church had been erected before the Saxon conversion. Pilgrims from Ireland were attracted by its sanctity, and doubly valued its facilities for study and religion, because it was reported to be the burial place of their own St. Patrick. The Welsh, the ancient Cimbric race, lingering yet throughout the west of England, and sole inhabitants of Cornwall, looked with deepfelt reverence upon the glassy isle. Arthur, the most glorious of their warriors, was found entombed within its sacred boundaries. Herstan would naturally direct his son's attention to Avalon as superior to Fleury-on-the-Loire, above Orleans, which had become by Odo's efforts, A.D. 930, the main seat and seminary of benedictine discipline. This glory of Gaul may have been known to Dunstan when his father took him to spend a night at Glastonbury. He went there to pray, on a spot so highly famed for sanctity. The things seen by Dunstan, and the persons from Ireland engaged in their devotions, must have made on Dunstan's youthful imagination impressions which were never effaced. In that very night he had a vision. A majestic figure conducted him through the scenes of the day. But he saw the remains of antiquity assuming a new appearance. A splendid monastic pile presented itself to the mind of Dunstan, as replacing the remnant of the past. This was the prototype of that structure eventually raised by Dunstan. The Irish pilgrims were poor. They supported themselves by teaching. Herstan selected one of them as tutor to his son. Dunstan was educated at Glastonbury. Dunstan's thirst for knowledge undermined his health. His parents lost all hope of his recovery. As a last resort they sought assistance from a female famed for skill in medicine. Her skill failed. Dunstan was left as dead. He was completely exhausted. He was not dead. He arose, seized a club, fled over hill and dale as if pursued by hounds, and, wearied by his flight, turned his steps towards Glastonbury, and reached its venerable fane. He proceeded on steps provided for workmen, and reached the roof of the church. He saw an opening, and through it pushed his way. This opening led into the church, though by a dangerous descent. He came safely down. He found two guards asleep. He lay down between them. He fell into a most refreshing slumber. In the morning the men were astonished to find their companion. Dunstan's disorder was now spent. He gradually recovered. His remembrance of his fever must have been ever present to his mind. His veneration for the isle of Avalon must have continually increased. (a.) A.D. 747.—The canons of Cloveshoo are in fact adapted to the correction of existing irregularities in morals and discipline. Their general tenor is highly favourable to the Roman church, because they enjoin a strict uniformity with her offices and usages. They establish, however, a strong case against her. Priests were to learn how to construe the creed, the Lord's Prayer, the offices of Baptism and the Mass, for the purpose of explaining these forms vernacularly. Cuthbert, archbishop of Canterbury, summoned the synod at Cloveshoo. Ethelbald, king of Mercia, was president. Cuthbert acted under the influence of Boniface, originally named Winifred, an eminent ecclesiastic, who received his monastic education in England. He was born in Crediton, in Devonshire. (b.) Pope Vitalian sent Adrian over into England, in company with Theodore, as a spy upon Theodore's actions. Theodore was remarkable for independence of mind. The Papal Court therefore felt jealous of his actions, A.D. 668 to A.D. 690. His spirits were monkish habit at Edmund I. had Dunstan became A.D. 942.-Dunstan was a mechanic. His companions in the monastery accused him of practising or studying magic. Athelstan believed the charge. Dunstan retired. His enemies followed him, ill-used him, and threw him into a ditch. They returned to the monastery. Dunstan was hospitably received in the house of a friend. Elphage, bishop of Winchester, advised him to adopt the monastic life so happily begun at Glastonbury. Dunstan was in love, and did not wish to take vows of celibacy (See Riddle's Ec. Chron. p. 202). Sickness again overtook him. completely broken. He assumed the Fleury. Athelstan was now dead. succeeded to the crown of England. his chaplain. Edmund I. built and endowed a regular monastery at Glastonbury, under the superintendence of Dunstan. Thus the visions of Dunstan's youth were realized, A.D. 943. This was the first establishment of the kind ever known in England. Dunstan was the first Benedictine abbot in England, as the abbot of a Benedictine monastery. He was fanatical and ambitious. He was able and severe. Odo and Dunstan were authors of wise laws for the government of the church. Edwy commanded Dunstan to retire from Glastonbury, A.D. 955. He went into exile amidst the tears of the monks. His biography contrasts the weeping faces of the monks with the grinning face of Satan, whose peals of laughter were distinctly heard as the abbot's retreating steps mournfully passed along the vestibule. The royal vengeance was not satisfied by Dunstan's disgrace. His abbey was dissolved, as was also the abbey of Abingdon, in Berkshire. Edwy miscalculated his power. Odo and Dunstan had their fatal revenge upon Edwy and his wife, Elgiva. When Dunstan had been driven from his monastic retreat at Glastonbury by the order of Athelstan, and had escaped from the hands of his enemies, he was advised to return to his favourite retreat. He returned a real Benedictine, determined upon celibacy. He built for himself a miserable cell against the wall of the monastery, more like to a grave than to the habitation of a living man. It was five feet long, two and a half wide, and not more than four feet in height above the ground, but the ground was excavated so that he could stand upright in it, though it was impossible for him to lie there at full length. The door filled up one side, and the window was in the door. This |