his depth of thought, but also for the morality of his principles and the purity of his life, so that 'to lead a Parmenidean life' became proverbial with the Greeks, and Plato speaks of him as 'Parmenides the great.'

Only so can we

The idea of genesis is inconceivable. There is only one being, and that is; it has neither become nor does it pass away, but remains without beginning or end, and without parts-it is one whole. All is continuity, and there is no empty space, nor is there succession in time. The figure symbolical of this is the circle: it has no beginning and no end, but simply is. conceive things, do we think them, and therefore, only so do they exist. Thought and existence are one and the same, are identical. The idea of existence includes non-existence as its correlative, as the idea of the conceivable includes the inconceivable. Multiplicity and succession are the inconceivable, are the non-existing (un ov). This is the world of seeming, in which our senses deceive us and go contrary to reason.' Such are the essential points of the doctrine of Parmenides.

Zeno.

His pupil Zeno adopted his positive opinions, but chiefly exerted his energy in showing the absurdity of opposing views. His proofs of the non-existence of motion and multiplicity are exceedingly clever, so that they puzzle many a thinker in our days, and are extremely important in the development of the negative character of philosophy. His reductio ad absurdum consists in applying the conception of infinite divisibility and infinite progression to motion and multiplicity; e.g. if a

thing is moving, it must at every moment either be in a certain place, or not be in that place; to be in a place wholly, means to rest there, and by dividing this space into its different parts he finds that it does not move at all, ie. its so-called motion consists of a long stage of resting-places, which together make one large repose.

So also he maintains, that, if there be multiplicity, things must-Ist, be reduced to units, which are indivis ible, but something indivisible cannot have extension, which means, it is nothing; 2nd, if everything has extension, then it must be distinguished from other things, but then between any two things there must be something that separates them, and again, there must be something between each of the original things and the separating thing (or else they would be one thing), etc., things are therefore infinite, unbounded in number; 3rd, but finally there cannot exist more nor less things than there really are things, therefore there is a bounded and limited number.

Thus Zeno attempts to show that all conceptions of motion and multiplicity lead to contradiction. He is also the inventor of the famous puzzle called 'Sorites :' if in upsetting a bushel of wheat there is a certain noise, there must also be a noise in dropping one grain of wheat; for the bushel consists of single grains. If we measure with sufficient exactness we shall find that the point where we, with our gross hearing, do perceive the sound is marked by the addition of one grain, which is therefore the immediate cause of our hearing the sound. This leads to the absurd proposition that one grain of corn makes the noise of a bushel.

Zeno was the founder of what is called 'dialectic,' and we shall meet this manner of reasoning with the Sophists, Socrates, the Megaricians, and the Sceptics. The last and least important of the Eleatics was Melissus, who merely continued the course of Zeno.

SECTION II.-HERACLITUS.

We have just seen how motion may be regarded as a deception of our senses. Who tells us whether rest is not such a deception? Does not the evidence go to show that all is in continual motion? Myself, 'am I not dying life, and living death?' And nature around me, is it not continually changing its robes, doffing its old ones and donning new ones? Even the rock by the sea-shore, is it not wearing away, and does not the ocean throw new materials on its shores? This streamlet here is in perpetual motion; it is true, that 'were I to rise in the air like an eagle, it would seem like one continuous resting silver band,'-may not all seeming rest be a similar deception? All flows, is in continual motion, and the idea of rest and stagnation is one of the hasty prejudices of the mind.

So thought Heraclitus of Ephesus (born about 500 B.C.), surnamed the 'Obscure,' on account both of his stern and gloomy character, and of the sententious style of his expression. His opinions are all clad in aphorisms, they are gnomical.1

1 Some of these aphorisms admit of different interpretations, as e.g. when he compares the harmony of the universe with bow and lyre, as

Such aphorisms are, e.g., ‘All flows-no one can descend twice into the same stream; for it continually accumulates and disperses, flows hither and flows on again.' These two propositions contain his opinion, that all is in continual motion; others show the nature of this motion, and at the same time attempt to account for continual motion. There is not merely continual motion and striving; but it is a com-motion and conation, there is action and reaction. Things do not move in empty space, but against one another (evavτioтроπ, évаνтiоdpoμía). Difference, contradiction, strife. is essential to all motion and life, and even to harmony. Everywhere in nature there is contrast and opposition of elements and forces,-life and death, and motion and rest, waking and sleeping, etc. And in thought: every single thought implies its contradictory, as existence has in its company the idea of non-existence. Everywhere contrast and strife. 'Strife is the father of all,' he says. If we had not this strife there would be no multiplicity, no interaction of things-no life: 'All would pass away.'

But all this difference and contradiction is resolved in harmony. In fact, without this difference there could be no harmony; for harmony means the accord, the combination and welding into unity, of different things. With total sameness we could have no harmony. We

being one whole with antagonistic parts. Some have seen in the lyre and the bow two parts of the same instrument; some saw the analogy in the form of each; another maintained that it really read, bow and chord; and still another maintains that it is merely symbolical of the Apollinian worship, this god having as attributes lyre and bow,-the world-lyre and the sun darting its rays.

are reminded of Lessing's epigram on 'the quarrelsome couple,' which pictures with short traits what even life would be if there were total sameness of feelings and desires :

'Such harmony we must admire :
What to possess is his desire,

She also wishes to acquire!'

These principles of Heraclitus are essentially opposed to the principles of the Eleatics. There is however one great point of agreement between them, namely, Pantheism. Heraclitus too conceives the world as an 'All in one,' the great Harmony of Difference, the World-Harmony, the World-Lyre. Physically he conceives fire to be the one element out of which all things are evolved (if I may use so modern a word). He chose fire, because it is the restless element, ever fertilising and consuming. It passes through all different stages (Tроπoi), and all returns to it.

His principles in short were: All is in continual motion, a world of difference; but with the greater resultant unity and harmony. And he goes so far in this conception of harmony that he considers it an intellectual principle, a world-soul; ordering all, as the word orders thoughts, and so he calls it Logos (Móyos).

Heraclitus is the deepest of the pre-Socratic philosophers. In his conception of strife as the principle of life, and fire as the one element, we may almost see a vague anticipation of the theory of the 'struggle for existence' and the law of the conservation of energy.

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