Sira's book.' The sense 'Christians' is rendered certain by Rashi's gloss. (See "non.) The Jerusalem Talmud follows the Midrash not only in this place, but elsewhere when it speaks about Ben-Sira. A text of Ecclus is quoted in the story of Simeon Ben-Shetach (Berachoth, sec. 7, and Nazir, sec. 5). R. Nissim (about 1020 A.D.) states that the source of the story is the 'Genesis of R. Hosha'yah,' i.e. the Midrash Rabbah on Genesis (Nissim's Mafteach, ed. Goldenthal, p. 22b). In another place in which Ben Sira is quoted (Hagigah, sec. 2), the verse is quoted from 'R. Lazar in the name of Ben-Sira.' The Midrash R. on Genesis also quotes the same verse from 'R. Eleazar in the name of Ben-Sira.' Of course, if Ben-Sira's book had been accessible, the Midrash would not have quoted the verse from R. Eleazar. The formula 'in the name of' belongs to the oral tradition (Arabic 'an). That in this case the Jer. Talmud gets the verse from the Midrash is confirmed by the fact that the Midrash is much nearer the original. The latter quotes Ecclus 320. 21 thus (sec. 8): 'Into what is too great for thee search not, into what is too strong for thee pry not, about what is too wonderful for thee know not, about what is hidden from thee ask not; about that over which authority has been given thee consider: for thou hast no business with hidden things.' The Jer. Talmud interpolates the verses from Job 118, It is too hard for thee, what dost thou know? Deeper than hell, what canst thou search? About that over which,' etc. Between the tradition of the Midrash and that of the Jer. Talmud there is then a considerable degeneration. And this degeneration has taken the form of assimilating the quotations from Ecclus, which the oral tradition preserved, to the form of verses of Scripture. We shall presently see some other examples of the same phenomenon. .אוקיר לאסיאד עד שלא תצטרך ליה ",Ben-Sira R. Eleazar is the authority for another quotation from Ben-Sira, Midr. Tanchuma i. 51, 'Rabbi Eleazar says: "It is written in the book of The verse is an Aramaic paraphrase of 38. 1. The words are reproduced in J. Ta'anith iii. 6, as a saying of R. Lazar. In Midr. Rabbah Exodus, In Midr. Rabbah Exodus, sec. 21 (ed. Vilna 81b), it is given in Hebrew as a proverb on the authority of R. Eleazar B. Pedath. We are fortunate in this case to be able to trace the depravation of the tradition. As elsewhere, the Midrash Rabbah has the best form; the Jer. tradition is much worse. R. Eleazar (B. Pedath) is the source of the Ben-Sira references which the latter contains, and in this last case his name by a natural error is substituted for Ben-Sira's. He appears to have lived early in the third century A.D., and, from the fact that verses of Ben-Sira are quoted on his authority, we may conclude that the original of Ecclus was destroyed either during or before his time. To Jerome's assertion that he had seen the original of Ecclus of course no importance can be attached, since he made no use of the original for his edition of the Latin. All the Talmudic quotations are of interest, and all testify loudly that they come from an oral tradition which there was no means of checking. In this article we have only room for three. One of these runs thus: Take no thought for the morrow, for thou knowest not what a day may bring forth: perhaps to-morrow comes and he is not, and is found to have troubled himself about a world that is not his.' This can be analysed with ease. 'Take no thought for the morrow' is a saying not of Jesus Ben-Sira, but of Jesus the son of Mary (Mt 634). The similarity of the names caused this confusion. The fact that the clause ended with the word 'to-morrow' recalled Pr 271, boast not of the morrow,' leading to the tag, 'for thou knowest not what a day may bring forth,' which constitutes the second half of the verse of Proverbs, being appended. But some one observed that our ignorance of what a day might bring forth was not a reason for not being anxious, but rather a ground for anxiety; he therefore added the comment, 'perhaps,' etc., which, by the change from the second to the third person, betrays itself as a comment, and no part of the original saying. This then gives us an excellent illustration of the course taken by oral tradition when there are no texts by which it can be checked. First, the saying of one Jesus is assigned to another; next, to this saying there is appended a half-verse from Scripture, owing to homoeoteleuton, i.e. the clause ending with the same word as that with which a clause of Scripture terminates; and then, owing to a resulting discrepancy, a comment is attached and re garded as part of the original saying. Of course, had there been any texts current, this process would have been nipped in the bud. Another saying that is assigned to Ben-Sira has also an interesting history. In Ketuboth 110b the context suggests the question, How comes it that a change from a bad dwelling to a good dwelling is trying? To this the following answer is given: 'This view agrees with the opinion of Samuel (an authority of the third century), that a change of habit is the commencement of internal disease. For it is written in the book of Ben-Sira, 'All the days of the poor are evil.' But has he not Sabbaths and Feast-days? This is as Samuel says, 'Change of habit is the commencement of internal disease.' Ben-Sira says, 'even the nights; his roof is below other men's rooves, and his vineyard is at the top of the mountains; the rain from other men's rooves drips on his, and the soil from his vineyard is washed down upon other men's.' This passage is very evidently confused. In Baba Bathra 146a the whole is put in the mouth of R. Joshua Ben-Levi (second century). The verse, 'All the days of the poor are evil,' is, of course, not Ben-Sira's but from Pr 1515. To this R. Joshua objects that since even the poor has Sabbaths and Feast-days, all his days are not evil; there are those exceptions. To this the answer is given, 'It is as Samuel says: Change of habit is the commencement of internal disease.' Since the Feast-day represents a change of habit to the poor man, it is bad for him, though in itself good; the change from his ordinary wretchedness makes these days bad too. 'Ben-Sira says the nights too; his roof,' etc. In Sanhedrin, R. Joshua's criticism and Samuel's reply are put at a distance from the quotation from Ben-Sira. It is clear that we have two independent comments on the verse of Proverbs. R. Joshua thought Solomon had said too much; some one else thought he had not said enough. But the oral tradition was in the first place mistaken in assigning this second criticism to Ben-Sira. What Ben-Sira does say (40. 5c) is that man, besides being troubled all day, gets no rest at night. The oral tradition wrongly connected this saying with the poor, by a chain that can no longer be traced. It is next obvious that the saying about the poor man's roof and his vineyard could not be an illustration of the trouble which the poor man suffers at night; even Rashi is struck by this. Indeed, we do not usually associate the idea of poverty with that of the possession of rooves and vineyards; this saying therefore probably had no original connexion with the subject of poverty at all. Hence the only connexion of Ben-Sira with this passage is that he in one place says the equivalent of 'even the nights.' In Sanhedrin, Ben-Sira is made to comment on the verse of Proverbs; in Ketuboth the verse of Proverbs is itself quoted as Ben-Sira's. In Berachoth 48a the story of Simeon BenShetach is told. This person, taking his seat between two royalties, ascribed his good fortune to the Law on the faith of the verse of Scripture, 'hold her up and she will exalt thee, and set thee between princes.' The first half of this verse is Pr 48, but where was the second half to be found? This question was addressed to R. Hay Gaon (about 1000 A.D.: Responsa Gaonum, Berlin, 1848, p. 23b), who made a variety of suggestions. He was aware that some said the verse was Ben-Sira's, doubtless on the authority of the Midr. Rabbah. This, of course, involved the difficulty of Ben-Sira being quoted as Scripture, and the printed text of B. Berachoth has solved it by omitting the second clause and substituting for it the second clause from Proverbs; whereas the text before Rashi simply omitted the second clause. Another method (recorded by Rabbinowicz) was to introduce the second clause from Proverbs, and retain the clause, 'and set thee between princes,' as an explanation of the words, 'she shall honour thee,' in the second clause of Proverbs. But in all the comments on this passage, from the time of Hay Gaon to the printing of the Talmud, there is no trace of any Rabbi having consulted Ben-Sira's book to see what was actually there; for, indeed, there was no such original to consult. The history of this quotation is, of course, the following. The original story made Simeon BenShetach quote Ben-Sira to account for his sitting between princes; and as the point of the story lay in this second clause, 'She shall set thee between princes,' it was preserved in the oral tradition. But the verse of which it forms the second member runs as follows (Ecclus 111): 'The wisdom of the lowly shall raise his head and set him between princes.' For the first clause (which like all BenSira's genuine verses is in nine syllables with three accents) the oral tradition substituted the clause from Proverbs, 'hold her up and she will exalt thee,' there being nothing in the story calculated to preserve the first clause as the second had been preserved. When the tradition began to assume a permanent form, some identified the first clause as belonging to Proverbs and threw out Ben-Sira's name, after which the second clause had also to go. At the Literary Table. 'The Jewish Encyclopedia.'1 WITH the issue of the seventh volume The Jewish Encyclopedia commences its second half, and if the recent rate of progress be continued, the close of next year will see the conclusion of one of the greatest literary tasks that the Jewish community has undertaken for centuries. The criticisms raised on the first volume have been well considered by those responsible for the undertaking, and of the deficiencies to which readers of volume i. could point, several have been remedied in subsequent volumes. Each volume, in fact, proves an improvement on its immediate predecessor. The, in some instances, wise concentration that has been practised with regard to later volumes has been of twofold advantage. In the first place, there seems every probability now that the original scheme of twelve volumes will be carried through, and that the necessity once feared of having either to exceed the allotted number or unduly to compress the contents of the later volumes, will not arise. Moreover, the work profits by the limitations of the space devoted to many topics and especially personages of purely ephemeral interest. Despite this reduction in the number of mediocrities who have found mention in the pages, it is still considered that it would have been advisable to have followed the example of the Dictionary of National Biography and the ninth and previous editions of the Encyclopædia Britannica, and to have omitted all biographies of living personages. It is certain that many who now appear in this roll of Jewry's great men would, if dead, have been omitted without loss to the dignity of the undertaking. The volume under notice, as a matter of course, covers an almost illimitable field. Judaica and Hebraica in their widest interpretations form the sphere of influence of the editors. In many departments the seventh volume contains articles. of considerable value. Especially to be mentioned are: Jacob, Jeremiah, the Book of Jeremiah, Job, the Book of Job, the Book of Joel, the Book of Jonah, Joseph, Joshua, the Book of Joshua, the Book of Judges, the Period of the Judges, the Books of Kings, and Kohelet Rabbah, in the 1 The Jewish Encyclopedia. Vol. vii. Italy - Leon; London: Funk & Wagnalls Company. Department of the Old Testament. The New Testament furnishes important articles on Jesus and the Epistle of James. One of the finest essays in the seven volumes is that on Jerusalem, illustrated by several plans, five of them forming the frontispiece. In the same class are to be placed the opening article on Italy, and later ones on Kiev and Kishineff, the latter a city that has recently become of supreme Jewish interest. The various Jewish dialects, Judæo - German, JudæoGreek, Judæo-Italian, Judæo-Persian, and JudæoSpanish are treated in a masterly fashion. Other topics dealt with at length are the historian Josephus, the Book of Jubilees, Judah the Prince the editor of the Mishnah, Judah Halevi the Hispano-Jewish poet and philosopher, the interesting sect of the Karaites or literalists, Kol Nidre the traditional Day of Atonement melody and announcement, the Koran, Lassalle, the Codification of the Law and Judaism. This last-mentioned essay is one of the most valuable in the volume. The article on Jesus is contributed by Mr. Joseph Jacobs, Dr. Kaufman Kohler, and Dr. Samuel Krauss, the first mentioned dealing with the subject in history, the second in theology, and the third in legend. Mr. Jacobs emphasizes the Jewish influences and characteristics of Jesus and His teachings. Dr. Kohler contends that his subject was a man of the people rather than a reformer. Dr. Kohler has also undertaken the presentment of Judaism, and has succeeded well in his task. He finds difficulty in defining the religion, which he considers 'too large and comprehensive a force in history to be defined by a single term or encompassed from one point of Judaism the writer considers a historic power varying in various epochs. The contention of certain critics that Judaism died nineteen hundred years ago, that at the birth of Christianity it became stagnant and dried up, he opposes with vigour. Judaism has ever remained a river of . God, full of living waters which, while running within the river bed of a single nation, has contrived to feed anew the great streams of human civilization.' The essence of Judaism is the proclamation, the propagation, and preservation of the religion of pure monotheism! It is the guardianship of the pure monotheistic faith; and this implies the intellectual and spiritual elabora- Union of Jewish Literary Societies, BY NILE AND EUPHRATES. BY NILE AND EUPHRATES: A RECORD OF DISCOVERY AND ADVENTURE. By H. Valentine Geere. (T. & T. Clark.) Books of exploration in Bible lands have an advantage over all other books. They have a double appeal. They appeal to the lover of adventure and they appeal to the lover of the Bible. Very few books in last year's market had such a sale as Hilprecht's Explorations in Bible Lands during the Nineteenth Century. Messrs. T. & T. Clark are in good time this season with another book of travel in the lands of the Bible. It is lighter in style, more richly illustrated, and much more attractively bound than Hilprecht. Its title is By Nile and Euphrates, its author Mr. H. Valentine Geere. After the issue of Hilprecht's book a keen controversy arose in America. It was not that Hilprecht had discovered new methods of exploration. It was because, with amazing frankness, he criticised the methods of his predecessor. Mr. Geere has something to say about that matter. His book is a book of travel, but the centre of its interest is Nippur, that wonderful Babylonian city where the American Exploration Fund has reaped such a harvest of 'tablets.' He knows what Dr. Peters attempted, and he knows the difficulties with which he had to contend. He knows also that Professor Hilprecht adopted more scientific methods and obtained richer results. By Nile and Euphrates is a book of travel. It owes part of its charm to Mr. Geere's skill in seeing and in setting down simply what he sees. But with all its charm of travelling it has a purpose. That purpose is to describe the aims that animate explorers in Bible lands, the methods they adopt, the life they live, and something of the results they have already obtained. In Mr. Geere's hands Nippur becomes a new Nineveh. We have read the book, and as we set it down we say, surely the happiest life on earth is the life of a successful explorer in the lands of the Bible. THE RELIGION OF A SAVAGE. THE NORTHERN TRIBES OF CENTRAL When the history is written of the conflict of Science with Scepticism a curious and instructive chapter will be entitled 'The Religion of the Natives of Australia.' In the effort to show that religion is purely a human invention, the invention. of interested priests, it was long and triumphantly declared that there were tribes of the earth with no religion at all, the conclusive example being the native blacks of Australia. Then science began to work. And it was discovered that religion occupies by far the greater part of all the thoughts and interests of the Australian aboriginal. Who are the men who have driven the platform sceptic out of Australia? They can be named very soon-Spencer and Gillen, Howitt, Fison, Roth-we are almost at the end of them already. A few years ago (it was in 1899) Spencer and Gillen published their great book on The Native Tribes of Central Australia. It was a revelation to the British public. A bulky, well-packed volume, what did it contain? Scarcely anything but religion. The writing was attractive, the illustrations were numerous; people bought the book and read it. The irreligious natives of Australia were found to be as religious as the ancient Athenians. The only thing that could assuredly be said to them was, 'Ye men of the Australian Bush, I perceive that in all things ye are too superstitious.' Professor Spencer and Mr. Gillen have followed up their first success. The new volume describes new tribes, still in the centre of Australia, and provides abundant new proof of the overwhelmingly religious character of the natives. Religion enters into every part of their life. Their food is cooked in religious vessels according to religious recipes; they sleep and wake, they dance and they wail, they marry and when they can they die, all in conformity with unwritten, but never forgotten, religious rites. During his early years, up till perhaps the age of fourteen, the boy is perfectly free, wandering about in the bush, searching for food, playing with his companions during the day time, and perhaps spending the evening watching the ordinary corrobborees. From the moment of his initiation, however, his life is sharply marked out into two parts. He has first of all what we may speak of as the ordinary life, common to all the men and women, and associated with the procuring of food and the performance of corrobborees, the peaceful monotony of this part of his life being broken every now and again by the excitement of a fight. On the other hand, he has what gradually becomes of greater and greater importance to him, and that is the portion of his life devoted to matters of a sacred or secret nature. As he grows older he takes an increasing share in these, until finally this side of his life occupies by far the greater part of his thoughts. The sacred ceremonies, which appear very trivial matters to the white man, are most serious matters to him. They are all connected with the great ancestors of the tribe, and he is firmly convinced that when it comes to his turn to die his spirit will finally return to his old alcheringa home, where he will be in communion with them until such time as it seems good to him to undergo reincarnation.' What influence has the religion of this very religious people on their morality? Their religion is morality. To transgress the laws of moral life is to sin against that which they know to be God. Their God is not the God of Joseph. But in their own way they would say with Joseph, 'How can I do this great wickedness and sin against God?' And if only their conception of God, and of man. as made in the image of God, were higher, their moral life, so strictly subservient to religious sanction, would put to shame the life of Christian nations whom we know. They have no separate names for numbers above three, and yet they pass on a series of most complicated religious relationships without a variation from father to son, and they carry through a series of most intricate and painful religious ceremonies, lasting for weeks on end, without a hitch. Notes on Books. STUDENTS of the Ancient East have hitherto had to be content with popular histories or still more popular lectures. Only a few of the most persistent, or only the few who could afford it, have gone direct to the Inscriptions themselves. There seems to be no middle way. There are no great scientific histories of Egypt and Babylonia to revel in, such as there are of Greece and Rome. Nor is it likely to be possible to write such histories for many years to come. Either, therefore, we must be content with the popular compendium, or else, by some means or other, we must get at the Inscriptions. Two enterprising American professors have determined to put the Inscriptions within the reach of every serious student. For their 'Library of Ancient Inscriptions' they have secured the very best Assyrian and Egyptian scholars living. Nor are they content with Egypt and Assyria. They intend to issue also an account of all the Inscriptions of note in Arabia, Syria, and Palestine. Messrs. T. & T. Clark will publish the Library in this country. The first volume is almost ready. It deals with Babylonian and Assyrian Laws, Contracts, and Letters. Its author is Mr. C. H. W. Johns, Fellow of Queens' College, Cambridge. Other volumes. in the series are: Babylonian and Assyrian Epics, Penitential Psalms, Proverbs, and Religious Texts, by Professor Friedrich Delitzsch; Egyptian Tales, Proverbs, Poems, and Belles Lettres, by Professor Maspero; while Professor Kent and Dr. G. A. Reisner will produce a History of the Discovery and Decipherment of the Ancient Inscriptions. Messrs. T. & T. Clark will publish a still greater series. It is to go by the title of Religion in Literature and Life.' The idea is to produce original works on religious as distinguished from ecclesiastical history, and on the literature of religion. There are two kinds of apologetic. The one kind tries to answer the sceptic after he has spoken. That is the usual kind of apologetic. That kind has been used by the Church from the very beginning. The other kind prepares people's minds so that the sceptic can do no harm when he speaks and scarcely needs to be answered. Professor Dods has written a book of the latter and more scientific kind. He calls it The Bible, its Origin and Nature. It will be published immediately by Messrs. T. & T. Clark. We are soon to have a new book from Dr. Sanday. He modestly calls it Outlines of the Life |