is to be brought out. Often the opposite is the case. Often a considerable change of language is needed to bring out a nicety of meaning, while adherence to the letter may be the ruin of the spirit. So the adherence to 'Jehovah' and 'God' respectively, where the Hebrew has Jahweh or 'Elohim (or 'El), is a mere piece of pedantry. Nothing is gained in sense, much is lost in freedom, and after all, we know that in many Psalms a copyist arbitrarily changed the Divine names.

I find that time will not permit me to give illustrations of syntactical niceties, such as it would be well to keep in translation. But I must say a word or two on a very practical point the rhythm of the Psalms. Hebrew has no metre,1 i.e. the rhythm of sound is left free to the author. What the language insists on is the so-called parallelism-a rhythm of sense.

Now something of this kind runs in all languages through the modern artificial sound-rhythm. The principle of cæsura is, in fact, a relic of a time when all rhythm was rhythm of sense. We cannot get the parallelism out of Hebrew poetry. And though we could, we may not do so, for this senserhythm, wave of thought and feeling answering to wave, is essential to the thought, and is a great source of the simple power of the Psalms. But, again, if we keep the rhythm of sense we cannot allow it to run its course quite out of relation to the modern rhythm of sound; for to allow sound and sense to clash is the greatest fault a poet can commit. If anyone doubts this, let him consider how much more rhythmical to the ear is a prose Psalm than a metrical version in which the parallelisms are allowed to fall out of relation to the line, e.g. Ps 4910. 11

For why? he seeth that wise men die,
and brutish fools also

Do perish; and their wealth, when dead,
to others they let go.

1 We may remind our readers that this was written in 1872. Since then, as many of them are aware, numerous attempts have been made to discover-or create-metre in Hebrew poetry. But the metrical schemes proposed all involve, if they are to be carried through, such violence to the text and such repeated alterations of it (Duhm, Marti, etc.), that we doubt whether Professor Robertson Smith, had he lived, would have accepted any of them. We make an exception of course in the case of Budde's ķina metre where, at least within limits, there can be no doubt that we are on solid ground (see Professor Driver's L.0.7., p. 457 ff.).— EDITOR.

Their inward thought is, that their house
and dwelling-places shall

Stand through all ages; they their lands
by their own names do call.

Almost all that is unpardonably clumsy in the Scottish version is caused by such violations of the parallelisms-violations which are much more offensive to the ear than even the addition of insipid epithets, when these are used to keep the metre and sense-rhythm in unison.

On the whole, however, our version has, in respect to the reproduction of the parallelism, a peculiar advantage. The ballad metre is itself a relatively primitive form of rhythm, and is subject to a very strict law of cæsura, almost amounting to a sense-rhythm. Just as in Hebrew verse, each couplet (taking fourteen syllables as a line) must contain a separate sentence or clause, and again the line is regularly broken after eight syllables. This renders the metre wonderfully fit for the reproduction of Hebrew poetry, as long as the parrallelism runs into distichs, though the lightness. and buoyancy of the original is sometimes affected by the slow movement of the long ballad lines.

The real weakness of the metre of our Psalms is in the reproduction of tristichs and other complicated rhythmical figures. Then the parallelism must be sacrificed to the rhyme. The metre has no elasticity, and a whole passage may be ruined. because one line of the original is a little longer, or a little shorter, than those around it.

Again, the ballad metre has no capacity for strophical arrangement. Thus the strophes of the Psalms are often lost. If the strophe is marked by a refrain, the case is still worse. Nay, our translators seem to have thought it an achievement to get rid of the refrains by varying the rendering at each occurrence! The grossest case of this kind is in Pss 42 and 43.

Finally, there are certain rhythms in Hebrew which are not strictly parallelisms at all, e.g. the climatic rhythm of some of the Songs of Degrees. Here, too, our version often fails, as in the latter part of Ps 130.

Let me now in a few words attempt to bring this very imperfect sketch to a more practical issue.

We have seen reason to believe that the theory of reproducing the Psalms in all their simplicity, which the Scottish version follows, is the right one

that the qualities really valuable for devotion are almost necessarily impaired by any attempt to give

a fine translation, or to accommodate Oriental to Occidental taste. Again, our version is singularly free from such errors as proceed from inadequate sympathy with the religion of the Bible; and even as regards form, the ballad metre is probably the best medium we have for the reproduction of the Hebrew sense-rhythm. On the other hand, the faults of the version are considerable. I do not say anything of what is obvious to everyone, that increased smoothness of metre might often be attained without injury to the sense, and that tasteless epithets might often be removed without any reference to special principles of translation. These are matters, not of scientific discussion, but of poetic tact. But what I wish to urge is that scientific study must be brought to bear on any really successful remodelling of the translation.

One great defect of our version lies in a want of delicate perception of the subtler beauties of the original. Many of the grosser faults of translation might be removed by any new versifier, who would keep the consensus of recent critics in his eye. But it should be an object not only to correct gross faults, but to retain as much as possible of those excessively volatile excellences. which will hardly survive double translation,-first, into prose and then into metre. In short, we should have our translation revised by some man who, to poetical gifts and spiritual insight, adds a great scientific familiarity with the Old Testament. From a revision by such hands much might be expected.

Undoubtedly it must be confessed that, from a metrical point of view, our present version is too monotonous. Congregations will tire of singing all possible sentiments to ballad metre. And why is this? The answer I believe is easy, and follows from what has been already said. So long as the Hebrew verse runs in distichs of pretty equable length, the ballad metre with its variation short and long metre is admirable, and gives us such noble results as appear in Pss 25, 36, 89, 100, and so many others which congregations never tire of singing. But a single deviation of distich may throw out the harmony of metre with thoughts. The metre of our versions is utterly inflexible, while that of the original is more flexible than that of a Greek chorus. Thus, in the finest Psalms, a feeling of incongruity arises, the lyric spirit is blunted, and the congregation cannot sing with full energy and heartiness.

Who, for example, could sing with much spirit these lines, vv.3. 4. and 5 of Ps 48?

The Lord within her palaces

is for a refuge known.

For, lo, the kings that gather'd were

together, by have gone.

But when they did behold the same,

they, wond'ring, would not stay; But, being troubled at the sight, they thence did haste away.

Contrast the literal unpolished translation of the original

God in her palaces

Hath proved Himself a fortress,
For, lo, the kings assembled,

They sprang forth together.

When they saw, straightway they marvelled,
Were panic-stricken, and fled.
Tremor seized them there,

Pangs like a woman in travail.
With storm wind from the East
Thou breakest the ships of Tarshish.
As we heard

So have we seen,

In the city of Jehovah of Hosts,
In the city of our God,

God upholds her for ever and ever.

I do not see that it is possible to render these lines into any regular metre without sacrificing to the artificial rhythm, the noble rhythm of sense which the literal translation shows; and, of course, an irregular rhythm is of no assistance in singing. Surely the simple solution is to sing the prose. Not perhaps the prose just as it stands in our version, but a version slightly modified so as to do more justice to the details of the parallelism, and with occasional correction of undoubted errors. The preparation of twenty or thirty Psalms to be thus sung would be a great enrichment of our devotional material, and could raise no questions to trouble the weakest conscience. I do not, I confess, see any other thoroughly satisfactory solution of the Psalmody question in our Scottish churches; yet, at the same time, the improvement of the metrical version should be carefully studied. There is no doubt that taste and tact can do a great deal in conquering the hampering influences of a syllable rhythm. I believe that almost everything in this direction must be done on the basis of the Scottish version. The other English renderings, I am convinced, can teach us very little. The early ones have similar defects to our own, the more recent are too artificial and modernized.

A twofold interest attaches to The Travels of John the Son of Zebedee. In the first place, it contains a Liturgy of the Lord's Supper which, in Zahn's judgment, is one of the oldest prayers of the Church. After John had taken bread and given thanks, he spake thus

'What blessing, or what acknowledgment, or what word of exaltation, or what thanks, or what name shall we speak over the breaking of this bread, save Thy name? Thou who alone art Jesus the Christ, the Saving Name. Thou art the Life-giving Bread which came down from heaven for the salvation of the world. We bless Thee, who hast made us meet for the path of life. We thank Thee. Thou art the Creative Word; Thou art the Guide and the Door into grace; the abundant Salt; the Rich in Jewels; the Ear of Corn; the Life, Righteousness, Strength, Wisdom, the Refuge, the Repose, the Rest, the Vinestock, the Root, the Fountain of Life; who permitteth Himself to be called by that name because of man, that he might be saved and renewed from the former open wickedness of his deeds into which he had fallen through sin. For to Thee belongeth glory for ever and ever.'

In the second place, this story contains 'incidental allusions to heathen customs' which are of value. A bath-house is described in which Satanic power dwelt, because 'when the makers laid the foundation, they dug in the middle of it and placed a living girl there, and heaped up [the earth] over her; and laid the foundation stone.' The researches of scholars and missionaries enable Mrs. Lewis to give abundant proof of the wide prevalence of this horrible custom amongst heathen nations. Dr. Rendel Harris supplies a very curious illustration from Asia Minor: After the laying of the founda

tion stone of a new Protestant church near Harpoot by the American missionaries, the native workers. sacrificed a lamb in the trench, and placed its head in the foundation stone. We have there the first stage of the abandonment of the human sacrifice by the substitution of an animal; a later stage will be the placing of ransom money in the stone, a custom which prevails at the present time.' Needless to say, if this conjecture suggests the true origin of the custom, it has now lost all trace of this significance. Coins, like newspapers, are buried beneath foundation stones to give information as to date, etc.

The extracts given from 'The Mythological Acts of the Apostles' will prove that the editor and the publishers have once more earned the gratitude of all students of early Church history. To say that these stories are all below the level of the Lucan narrative is not to say that they are worthless. In some there is probably evidence of a recrudescence of paganism, and in others of incipient gnosticism; in some witness is borne to heathen superstitions, and in others to the ecclesiastical usages of the early Christians. When the chaff of legend has been winnowed away, it is probable that few golden grains of historical fact will be left. Nevertheless, these narratives deserve to be carefully read, for they furnish 'specimens of the kind of history that might have appeared in the New Testament, if that priceless little library of books had come to us from a purely human source.'

Old Testament.

THE Leo-Gesellschaft (Roman Catholic) commenced two years ago to issue a series of 'Theologische Studien,' edited by Professors A. Ehrhard of Strassburg and F. M. Schindler of Vienna. These are intended to cover the whole domain of scientific theology. Before us lies the ninth issue of the series, entitled Geographische und ethnographische Studien zum III, and IV. Buche der Könige (Vienna: Mayer & Co.; price M.8.40). Its author, Dr. Johannes Döller, gained with it

the Lackenbacher prize offered for the best response to the invitation: Res geographicæ et ethnographicæ III. et IV. libri Regum illustrentur e monumentis historicis.' The author goes over the Books of Kings, picking out, after the fashion of Schrader, passages that seem to stand in need of elucidation from the points of view of geography and ethnography. If he contributes nothing very strikingly fresh, he has at all events consulted all the best authorities, and given his readers the benefit of their views. Dr. Döller's work is a real contribution to this department of biblical study.

We note, with pleasure, his acceptance of the eastern position for Zion. There is also an excellent account of the Dead Sea, in which connexion it is interesting to observe that the site of the Cities of the Plain is placed (probably) to the south of the Sea. Ophir is thought, upon the whole, to have been in E. Africa, in the Zambesi district. The various views regarding the location of Tarshish are ably discussed. We venture with all deference to suggest that Dr. Döller's language (p. 171) is somewhat misleading when he speaks of Professor Jensen identifying the Hittites of the O.T. with the ancestors of the modern Armenians. Is it not merely the so-called 'Hittites' of the inscriptions whom Jensen brings into connexion with the Armenians? Our author's remarks (p. 3) about Solomon's marriage (!) to the Shulammite in the Song of Songs symbolizing the union of God with believing souls (cf. also the cautious remarks on p. 4 f. about a supposed serpent-cult at the 'eben hazzoḥeleth), make us congratulate ourselves that in matters of exegesis we are ahead of our Roman Catholic brethren.

The same combination of accurate scholarship with what appear to us regrettable limitations is displayed in Dr. Schlögl's Commentary on Die Bücher Samuelis (Vienna: Mayer & Co.; price M.1.80), also issued under the auspices of the Leo-Gesellschaft, and forming one of the series. known as 'Kurzgefasster wissenschaftlicher Kommentar.' Rich as we are in first-rate works on the Books of Samuel, we welcome the present publication, with its careful translation of the text and its concise but valuable critical and exegetical notes.

To Dr. Schlögl we owe also an edition of the Song of Songs, in which an attempt is made to restore the original Hebrew, after the metrical and strophical system of Grimme and others. It is ingeniously carried out, and will interest even those who have little faith in schemes of Hebrew metre and still less in such an analysis of the Song as the author gives us on pp. ix ff. (Canticum Canticorum hebraice, auctore P. Nivardo Schloegel, O. Cist.; Vindobonæ : Mayer et Sociis Redemptoribus: price M.1.50).

New Testament.

A VERY hearty welcome will be accorded from all quarters to Professor Carl Clemen's great work, Paulus, sein Leben und Wirken (Giessen: J. Ricker).

The work is in two volumes, the first of which runs to 416 pages, and contains the 'Untersuchung,' arrranged under the three heads of 'Voraussetzungen,' 'Quellen,' and 'Chronologie' (price M.8). The second volume (pp. 339) is the 'Darstellung' (price M.5). The need for a thoroughly scientific work of the kind before us has long been felt. We have had monographs enough and to spare on special questions connected with the life or the times of St. Paul, and have seen the authenticity even of the 'four great Epistles' assailed in Holland, and, strangely enough, even in our own country, in the pages of the Encyclopædia Biblica. We have had voluminous controversies on chronological questions, and valuable contributions by Professor Ramsay and others to our knowledge of the geography, the government, and the means of travel that existed in the days of the apostle. At first we had thought to give our readers some specimen passages showing how in the work before us Dr. Clemen treats some of these questions, but we find it difficult to make a selection. Besides, we feel sure that no one who is deeply interested in Pauline matters will be content to make acquaintance except at first hand with the conclusions of our author. The book will at once take its place as indispensable to the student of primitive Christianity, and will be found to omit nothing that is of importance in its bearing upon the life and work of the great apostle of the Gentiles. We may add that the two volumes are purchasable separately, and we should strongly recommend those who do not see their way to procure the whole work to begin by purchasing the second volume. They will learn so much from it, and acquire so much confidence in the author, that they will not be content, we feel persuaded, till they have procured and studied the first volume as well.

Dr. W. Capitaine's name is already favourably known to the readers of THE EXPOSITORY TIMES for the thorough work he has done in connexion with Patristic theology. And he has earned a new claim to our gratitude by his work, Jesus von Nazareth (Regensburg: G. J. Manz; price M.2.40), which may be characterized as a frank, manly defence of the divinity and certain other qualities. of our Lord against the denial or the depreciation of modern times. Written by a Roman Catholic, and intended primarily for Roman Catholic readers, the book has at times a faint goût du terroir, but