EVENTS OF 1868

Congress Impeaches President Johnson for Violating Tenure of Office Act by Removing Stanton, Secretary of War-He is Acquitted by Margin of One Vote-Congress Reconstructs Southern States Over President's Veto-Grant is Elected President-Gladstone Becomes Prime Minister-British Expedition under Napier against Theodorus of Abyssinia-Napier Captures Magdala-Theodorus Kills Himself -Mikado Abolishes Shogunate-Imperial Troops Rout Forces of Shogun-Michael, Sovereign of Servia, is Assassinated-Milan Succeeds Him-Deaths of Rossini, the Italian Composer, and Berryer, the French Orator-Gérôme Exhibits Masterpiece-Isabella Banishes Spanish Generals-Revolutionists Bring Them Back-Revolutionists under Serrano Beat Royalists under Novaliches at AlcoleaIsabella Flees to France-Revolutionists Organize Provisional Government-Mauritius, Hawaii, and Peru and Ecuador are Devastated Respectively by Cyclone, Tidal Wave, and Earthquake.

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HE dissensions between the United States Congress and President Johnson reached a turning point at the very outset of the year. The House of Representatives, on January 24, commended the course of General Sheridan as Military Governor of Louisiana, and censured President Johnson for his dismissal of that officer. Ten days later the Senate refused to sanction the President's removal of Secretary Stanton from the War Office. successor, General Grant, promptly vacated the office, and Mr. Stanton resumed his functions. After a few weeks President Johnson once more dismissed Stanton, and appointed General Lorenzo Thomas to succeed him. The Senate then declared the appointment of Thomas illegal. Stanton put Thomas under arrest. He was released on bail. The President thereupon nominated Thomas Ewing of Ohio as Secretary of War. On March 5 the Senate convened a court of impeachment, with Chase, the Chief-Justice of the Supreme Court, in the chair, and the President was summoned to appear. Benjamin F. Butler opened the case against the President.

1868

GRANT ELECTED PRESIDENT

President Johnson maintained that his removal of Stanton could not be construed as a violation of the recent tenure of office act, Stanton not having been appointed by him, but by his predecessor, Abraham Lincoln. The trial lasted until the middle of May. At its conclusion 35 Senators voted for conviction and 19 for acquittal. Only by one vote had the necessary majority of two-thirds of the Senate been missed.

The weary struggle between the two branches of the Government of the United States was resumed. Congress voted to readmit to the Union the seven Southern States-Arkansas, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, with North and South Carolina. Amnesty was extended to 1,000 ex-Confederate soldiers. President Johnson vetoed the measure. Congress overrode this last veto by a majority of more than three to one in both Houses, and the long contest over reconstruction was closed.

General Grant was nominated in May by the Republican Convention at Chicago, on the first ballot and without a competitor. With so popular a candidate in the field Horatio Seymour, who was nominated by the Democrats to run against Grant, had small chance of success. Grant was elected President by a majority of nearly 500,000 votes.

In Great Britain this year was remarkable for the first election of a Parliament under the new system of household suffrage. The Liberals won, and Gladstone was appointed Prime Minister.

A conspicuous event of the year was Great Britain's Abyssinian expedition. As early as 1861, when Captain Cameron was appointed consul at Massowah, King Theodorus addressed a letter to Queen Victoria, expressing friendly feelings and suggesting an Abyssinian embassy to England. The British Government ignored this letter. Theodorus took revenge by imprisoning all Englishmen he could lay hold of. A British expedition was sent out from

FALL OF SHOGUNATE

1868

India under General Sir Robert Napier. The van pushed on to Senalfe on the high land of Abyssinia, and on January 3 of this year General Napier himself arrived in Annesley Bay. The expedition reached the Bashilo Pass early in April. Colonel Phayre, after he had crossed the Bashilo, divided his troops and sent one body, under Colonel Millward, up the Arogge Pass. With a larger body he proceeded over precipitous ground to the right. At the top of the Arogge Pass stood the Hill of Fahla, occupied by the Negus's warriors. The Indian rifles wrought fearful havoc among the Abyssinians. The next morning Mr. Flab and Lieutenant Prideaux, who had been held captives, appeared in the British camp with a flag of truce. Sir Robert Napier insisted that the prisoners should be unconditionally surrendered. This was done. On April 13 the British attacked Magdala. King Theodorus shot himself with a pistol before the soldiers could reach him. Thirty guns were captured and the palace was burnt to the ground. Theodorus's infant son, Alamayon, was taken to England.

In Japan the utter downfall of the Tokugawa Shogunate, which for more than two and a half centuries had maintained itself in power, was accomplished by a combination of the clans of Satsuma, Choshiu, Tosa, Etsizen, and others. An edict was issued in the name of the young Mikado, Mutsuhito, abolishing the office of Shogun. All followers of the Tokugawa family were expelled from Yeddo. The deposed Shogun now retracted his resignation, and at the head of a large force undertook to reenter Kioto to reassert his former authority. After a battle which lasted three days, the Shogun's followers were routed by the imperial troops. The beaten Keiki took refuge in his castle, and announced that he would never again take arms against the Emperor.

In Servia on June 10 Prince Michael, the sovereign, was assassinated at Belgrade. The regicides, Rado Vanovich and

1868

DEATH OF ROSSINI

his two sons, were seized, and ten others were arrested as implicated in a conspiracy to place Prince Karageorgewitch upon the throne. A provisional government was established, and Prince Milan, a relative of Prince Michael, was elected to the throne.

November 13 Gioacchino Antonio Rossini, the illustrious Italian composer, died at Paris. Rossini's "Barber of Seville" was hissed at its first performance in Rome. The cool reception of "Semiramide" by the Venetians, in 1823, induced Rossini to go to London, where he conducted a series of grand concerts. A brief season in Vienna proved even more successful than that at London. Proceeding to Paris, Rossini brought out his masterpiece, "William Tell," on August 3, 1829, with a magnificent cast at the Opéra. With this great work Rossini abruptly closed his operatic career. Thenceforward he wrote only religious scores, among them his famous "Stabat Mater."

In France M. Pierre Antoine Berryer, the glory of the Paris bar, died at Augerille. He was among those who strove to impeach Louis Napoleon, but after the coup d'état he took little part in political affairs. Still he held rank as the foremost orator of France since the days of Mirabeau.

At the Salon this year Léon Gérôme, the pupil of Delaroche, exhibited the historical painting "The Seventh of December, 1818." He had made his début in the Salon in 1847, with "A Combat of Cocks," now in the Luxembourg. His greatest historic work, "The Age of Augustus,” was in the Salon in 1855, and was purchased by the French Government. In America the landscape painter George Inness was made a National Academician.

Another revolution broke out in Spain. Queen Isabella had alienated all feelings of loyalty by her arbitrary rule. In July, several leading Spanish generals were arrested and banished to the Canary Islands. In the meantime a

REVOLUTION ESTABLISHES SPANISH REPUBLIC 1868

vessel was sent by the revolutionary leaders to the Canary Islands to bring back the banished generals. They arrived at Cadiz in September. Already the Spanish fleet at that port, under the command of Admiral Topete, and the garrison in the citadel had declared for the revolution. Marshal Serrano, the President of the Senate, placed himself at the head of the movement. All Andalusia rose against the Government. The Spanish Ministry resigned, and General Concha was appointed by the Queen President of the Council. The Marquis de Novaliches, commanding the royal army, marched upon Cordova. At Burgos the hostile forces came in contact. The royal troops fraternized with the people. Juntas were established in the different towns, which one after another raised the standard of rebellion. Before the end of September the Marquis de Novaliches had reached the bridge of Alcolea on the Guadalquivir near Cordova. Here a battle was fought between the royal troops and the insurgents, who were led to victory by Serrano. It was the last serious attempt to quell the revolution. Queen Isabella fled from Spain and took refuge in France.

Marshal Serrano entered Madrid at the head of the revolutionary troops in the first days of October. The central Junta authorized Serrano to exercise supreme power in conjunction with a provisional ministry until a Constituent Assembly should meet. He accepted. Within a week Great Britain, France, Prussia, and Portugal recognized the provisional government. General Prim was appointed Com mander-in-Chief of the Spanish forces.

This year is remarkable for atmospheric disturbances and volcanic convulsions. Early in January, Mount Vesuvius in Italy with loud detonations began to send forth an immense quantity of lava. With some intermissions the volcano continued to vomit a fiery stream for several months. When the eruptions ceased, Mount Etna for a brief period