ASSASSINATION OF ALEXANDER II 1881 1849 he was sent to Siberia, where he passed the bitterest time of his life, and where he gathered much of the material afterward used in his powerful stories. On the accession of Alexander II he was pardoned. Dostoyevsky's best known novels are "The Poor People," "The Degraded and Insulted," "Memoirs from the House of Death," also published as "Buried Alive" (his Siberian memoirs), and "Crime and Punishment." The year had begun in Russia with General Skobelev's brilliant successes over the Tekke Turkomans. On January 24, after a siege of three weeks, the Turkomans' stronghold of Geok Tepe was taken by storm; large quantities of guns, ammunition, and provisions were captured, and the Turkomans fled in confusion, leaving their dead on the field. This virtually terminated the expedition. On April 9 Skobelev received the submission of the principal Turkoman leaders at Askabad. Thus another extensive territory in Central Asia was brought within Russian influence. On March 13, as the Czar was driving along the banks of the Catherine Canal, a dynamite bomb thrown by one Rousakov burst under the carriage, wounding a Cossack and other persons standing near. The Czar stepped out of his carriage unhurt with his brother, the Grandduke Michael. He turned to walk home, when another bomb was thrown. When the smoke cleared away the Czar was lying in a pool of blood, while the assassin with other bystanders lay wounded. The Czar was conveyed to the Winter Palace, where he died two hours later. The draft of a liberal constitution was found in his desk after his assassination. The question of granting a constitution to Russia, discussed between the new Czar, Alexander III, and his advisers, was soon dismissed. Nihilism progressed accordingly. Another sensational assassination was perpetrated this year in the United States of America. President Garfield, 1881 ASSASSINATION OF GARFIELD after four months' administration, was shot on July 2, by Charles Guiteau, a disappointed office-seeker, in the railway station as the President and Secretary of State Blaine were about to leave Washington for New York. For two months Garfield hovered between life and death, until, on September 19, he suddenly expired. James Abram Garfield began his career as driver for a canal boat. When the Civil War broke out, Garfield, who had become a college president and Senator, was appointed to a Colonelcy and was soon raised to the rank of Brigadier-General. He was Rosecrans's chief of staff, and his gallantry was conspicuous at Chickamauga. While in the field he was elected to Congress, and remained in that body seventeen years. When Arthur became President, Garfield's Cabinet Ministers resigned, but Arthur requested them to retain their places until Congress should meet. All complied except Windom, and Judge Folger of New York took his place. Later Frelinghuysen became Secretary of State in place of Blaine. In October a new Japanese Constitution was promul gated. It consisted of 66 articles, with 266 expositionary clauses. The rights of sovereignty and executive power, according to the organic laws of the Empire, were vested in the person of the Mikado, who was declared inviolable. The Mikado's Ministers were accountable to him alone. Certain expenditures of the realm, specified in the Constitution, were confirmed to the imperial Government in perpetuity. A Parliament (to meet first in 1890) was created to assemble once a year, to be closed or dissolved by the Emperor. The Upper House was composed of three classes; to wit, hereditary peers, nominated peers, and elected members, the last two classes never to exceed the number of hereditary members. The House of Representatives was composed of 300 members, of national taxpayers to the amount of $15 annually, FRENCH WAR WITH TUNIS 1881 each to serve four years. Trial by jury, freedom from search, of religious belief, of speech, of press, and of public meeting within the limits of civic ordinances, were confirmed to the Japanese people in a bill of rights. Dr. Ogden of Aberdeen published an account of experiments which he had made to ascertain the causes of inflammation and suppuration. He arrived at the conclusion that suppuration was caused by certain bacteria. The results achieved afterward found ample verification. Among the deaths of the year was that of Maximilien Littre, the philologist and philosopher to whom France owes her great "Dictionnaire de la Langue Française.” France also lost Auguste Blanc, the great conspirator and brother of the eminent economist Louis Blanc. Auguste Blanc spent thirty-seven years of his life in prison. He died at Paris. During his long life of seventy-six years, he took part in every socialistic and revolutionary movement in France. For the last sixty years France had assumed a protectorate over Tunis. In recent years rivalry had sprung up between the French and Italians. Italy, which had some 15,000 of her subjects there, had considerable commercial interests at stake, while the French were chiefly influenced by political considerations. Finally the Bey rebelled against the French protectorate. Hostile operations against Tunis were undertaken in the last week of April by Generals Logerot, Forgemol, and Delebecque. The island of Taberka, protected by an old Moorish castle, was bombarded by French men-of-war and captured. On the 27th Kep was taken, and on May 1 Biserta was occupied and made a base of operations, 13,000 men landing under Generals Breart and Maurande. When Beja was taken, it was assumed in France that the war was over. The Bey practically accepted the protection of France, and the French expedition was recalled. An 1881 BOMBARDMENT OF SFAX insurrection forthwith broke out against the Bey. He was accused of selling his country. In the south, the seaport of Sfax was seized by the Arabs and the foreign residents in the country were threatened. France made immediate preparations to reconquer Tunis. A strong squadron of twenty men-of-war under Vice-Admiral Garnault demonstrated on the coast of Tunis. On July 5 the bombardment of Sfax was begun by two French vessels. During the next few days several more war vessels joined in the bombardment, which was kept up until the middle of July. After the fortifications were believed to have been sufficiently reduced, 3,000 men were landed and quickly carried the water battery and gate of the town. The French losses were insignificant. On September 10 General Saussier opened the campaign in the south with a proclamation to the Arabs giving them the alternative of submission or subjection. On October 27 he made his entry into Keyrouan, which had surrendered a few days previously to General Etielle. Though the military ends were obtained, there yet remained the exploration of the southern regions. On November 8 General Forgemol advanced upon Gafra, to whose inhabitants he granted a truce, while General Logerot turned toward Gabé only to find that the Arabs had broken up their camps and were flying in confusion. EVENTS OF 1882 Egyptians Rise against European Officials Allied Fleet Appears Off Alexandria-Arabi Pasha Becomes Dictator-Europeans Massacred at Alexandria-British Fleet Bombards Alexandria-Wolseley Routs Arabi at Tel-el-Kebir-British Neutralize Suez Canal-Korean Mob Attacks Chinese and Japanese Legations-China and Japan Send Punitive Expeditions_to Korea-Death of Dr. Schwann, Founder of the Cell Theory-Dr. Koch Discovers Bacillus of TuberculosisDeaths of Auerbach, the German Novelist, Rossetti, the PoetPainter, and Darwin, the Naturalist-Execution of the Assassin Guiteau-Star Route Post-Office Frauds Implicate Prominent Americans-Deaths of Longfellow and Emerson-Servia Becomes a Kingdom-Milan I is Its King-Death of Garibaldi-Madagascans Refuse French Demands for Land-France Objects to Presence of Chinese Troops in Tonquin as Inimical to Her_Colony,_ Cochin-ChinaFrench Capture Hanoi and Expel Chinese Troops-Deaths of Blanc, the Economist, and Gambetta, the Patriot. E ARLY in the year an outcry against European offi cials was raised by the Egyptian press, and the Khedive was driven to receive deputations voicing the general discontent of the country. A plot to murder Arabi Pasha, the War Minister, was barely frustrated. In May the allied fleet appeared off Alexandria. The feeling against the Europeans grew stronger day by day. The Egyptian troops began throwing up batteries and earthworks. By this time Arabi Pasha was practically sole dictator. On June 11 the entire population of Alexandria rose against the Europeans. The British, Italian, and Greek Consuls were attacked, and some 250 Europeans, chiefly Maltese and Greeks, were murdered. The Admirals avowed their inability to quell the revolt. In the meantime the works on the fortifications of Alexandria were pushed with all possible speed. Now the British Admiral threatened to bombard Alexandria, if work were not immediately stopped. Three days later, on July 10, a formal ultimatum was despatched to Arabi Pasha, demanding the surrender of the forts into British hands. No satisfactory reply was received by nightfall, and the |