is easy to show that the latter condition must be the true one, not the former. By such illustrations as these, all easily found by the alert teacher, children learn that changes in level of portions of the earth's crust are now going on. They learn these not simply as facts, but they see the reasons which make it necessary for them to draw these conclusions. Thus they are prepared for the task of picturing the formation of mountains as well as the sculpturing of those mountains by streams after they have been made.

It is hardly necessary to add that the purpose of this is not so much to give them a lot of information as to produce in them a state of mind and desire to investigate and a disposition to note facts and draw conclusions.

5. From this it is easy to make the transition to such gigantic catastrophes as those which must have occurred in what is now the Appalachian Mountain System, when the great deposits of the coal measures were formed. A brief and easy notice of the fact that friction, especially the friction of heavy masses, produces a great amount of heat, will aid the children in discovering that these ris ings and sinkings of portions of the earth's crust must have been accompanied by a prodigious amount of grinding and of consequent heating. By such changes, involving heat and pressure, we have our anthracite coal, as well as all of the infinite variety of structure and form in mountain systems. But the heat accompanying these movements did more than this. The heating of the rocks of the earth's crust has caused substances which melt at a given temperature to become separated from other substances melting in a different temper

ature, and assisted by laws of chemistry and physics, there have resulted our rich deposits of metals and ores.

To continue is unnecessary; the field is exhaustless. The task of the teacher is to pick out and select from the field those themes which will best illustrate and intensify the work of geography. Any study, however, would stop short of its legitimate and proper goal which failed to notice an interesting and suggestive condition. The Aryan branch of the Caucasian race occupies at present the shores of the Mediterranean, the most of Europe and of America. It so happens rather let us say it was so arranged by the all wise Creatorthat nearly all of these portions of land drain directly or indirectly into the Atlantic Ocean. Europe gradually slopes to the westward and civilization found its way along this downward slope to the eastern shore of the Atlantic. Fortunate indeed was it that this was the Atlantic and not the Pacific, the narrower and not the wider ocean! Columbus found his way from the western shores of Europe to the eastern shores of North America. But North America instead of sloping again to the westward slopes back to the eastward and faces Europe. Thus we have two great continents facing each other across the narrow ocean. The two are destined by the structure of the continents themselves, as well as by the blood-ties of their inhabitants, to be closely linked in every phase of activity and in destiny.

Earth Study deals with such things as these; leads children to see the great truths of the earth's structure; the limits placed to man's habitation, and the resources it is his province to develop.

tive, inductive, or experimental, in order to give children concrete experiences which are later to become the basis of rich concepts, and of original applications. (See the article by John S. Roberts on "Induction in Teaching"; SCHOOL WORK, Vol. I., No. 3.)

Frequently the type cannot be studied as above, for instance, a glacier. Yet, much can be done to give a clear, vivid notion of glaciers by noting the condition of snow left on the ground, and by the use of pictures. Topics like solstices and equinoxes should receive detailed attention and review on the days best suited to their discussion, viz., March 21, June 21.

The chief aim in this work should be to show the bearings of all these phenomena on human affairs,-life and its development. We are studying the earth as the home of man. (Ritter.) Otherwise the subject is useless. We must impart knowledge of our environment, and ideas of the utility of phenomena.

The history of the development of our country is closely interwoven with its physical geography: the fertility of the Mississippi Valley, the furs of Oregon, the gold of California, all produced immigration and settlement of waste lands. (See Shaler, Story of Our Continent.)

However, man is, after all, merely the highest part of creation. We, therefore, awaken sympathy with the lower forms of life.

The chief aids and sources of information are:

I. TRAVELS (McMurry, 13). 1. Excursions to natural localities, -hanging rocks in Bronx Park (week 7); to the shore, etc.

2. Excursions to artificial collections, Zoological and Botanical Gardens, to the Menagerie, Aquarium, and Museum of Natural History.

3. To industrial and farming operations, factories, quarries, etc.

4. Intercourse with travelers.

5. The teacher should recall frequently the impressions received by the pupils, so as to reproduce vivid mental images.

II. EXPERIMENTS AND USE OF SPECIMENS.

Causes of ocean currents may be shown thus (King, 168) in week 13: 2. The Solar Camera (K., 87), or Stereopticon.

3. Class aquaria and plants.
4. Pupils' pet animals.

5. Cabinet specimens and models. Seeds, bulbs, twigs, cereals, minerals. III. GRAPHIC REPRODUCTION. 1. Use of pictures (K., 123). 2. Diagrams on the blackboard. 3. Large charts copied by the pupils in colors whenever possible. 4. Globes (really generalized notions.)

5. A study map of the vicinity. 6. Topographic maps (K., 70, 91). (Tarr, 437, G. B., 15.) These may be had from the Commissioners of Topographic maps at the capitals of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, also maps of United States Geological Survey, and of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey.

IV. VERBAL REPRODUCTIONS. 1. Newspapers and periodicals in order to teach current physical geography instead of "Legendary," as in storms, explorations, improvement of harbors.

2. Official reports of departments of the United States and of individual

states; for instance, of the United States Geologic Survey, and of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. These may be had through Congressmen free, or at nominal prices.

3. Reports of Geographical Societies. Special pamphlets issued by railroads, Appleton's Natural Geographical Monographs (20c. each). 4. Reference books (K., 457).

The following list is suggestive rather than exhaustive, and has been employed in the preparation of this article because it is believed these books are either in the possession of the teacher, or can be obtained easily. The abbreviations used in the topical outlines below are also given. References marked suggest method and experiments:

A., 126; D., 94, 117, 347; T., 160, 328, 449.*

Coasts or Outlines.

G.-B., 302; D. R., 10, 65; R., 51. Shaler in 13th annual report U. S. G. S., Washington, 1893.

Use the shore nearest the home or school as a type. Most children of New York have been to places like the Battery, Corlears Hook, or Coney Island. Their experience and observations at one of these places will enable the teacher to develop the idea of indentation of the shore line. Present a map of the coast of the vicinity. Compare different coasts seen by pupils and by means of pictures. Lead pupils to see direction, contour, shelter for ships, and the influence of harbors upon trade, cities, men, civilization. Starting again with what the pupils have observed we see the necessity for lighthouses, lightships, buoys, life-saving stations. Hydrographic office (Washington) Bulletins, etc., explain uses of buoys, and of range lights in harbors.

II. ORIGIN OF COASTS.
D., 357; T., 206, 390, 343.

Maps of U. S. Coast & Geod. S., 11, 21, 30, 112 (Martha's Vineyard); 121 (Asbury); 123, 143, 145, 154, 194, 204, 408, 419. [For coast and method

of ordering, see Jul. School Geog., Sept., '97, and Oct., '98.] Shaler; "Beaches and Tidal Marshes of Atlantic; N. G. M. (20c.); Shaler in 6th Annual Report, U. S. G. S., 1886.

Begin with a concrete fact, such as the gradual submerging of the New Jersey coast as proved by the trees and forests largely under water. Thence lead to subsidence, emergence, crustal motion. The case of Scandinavia. The slow submergence of Manhattan Island. Effect on man.

III. STRATA OF ROCKS.

A., 10; R., 20; T., 164, 215; H., 145, 183, 258; G.-B., 299; D.,190.

Scott, Dana, Geological Sketches, by Agassiz, and Geikie respectively. Miller, "Old Red Sandstone." Geol. Survey, Wisconsin, Vol. I. Official State reports.

Recall how sea shells are cast on beach at Coney Island with other remains. Lead to the formation of layers from sand and organic remains deposited by currents. Fossils as proofs.

Present map of the Coast Deposits of Eastern United States (Scott, 177).

IV. FORMATION OF ROCKS. Formation of rocks by deposition, sedamentary rocks only at this stage. A., 10; T., 214, 165; Th., 143, 165, 239; H., 180; G.-B., 74; Merrill. Chisholm and Leete's Physical Geography, 32.

Present specimens such as quartz, feldspar, mica, calcite; and sandstone, shale, slate, limestone, chalk (Huxley, "A Piece of Chalk"), fossils.

Week 3.

LAND SURFACES.

According to origin.

1. Marine Plains, once the floor of oceans as proved by fossils.

A., 16, 7; M., 27; R., 57; T., 205,

446*; D., 113, 139; D. R., 18, 59, 137; G.-B., 151; H., 149-161.

The relation of the coast to the coastal plain as seen at some place like Coney Island. Compare the salt steppes of the Caspian. Shaler "Story of Our Continent."

2. Alluvial Plains including Deltas. Consult recent geologic reports by the States of New York, New Jersey, (25c.); Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Texas, Arkansas, Ohio, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Kansas, Iowa, South Dakota, California.

McM., 63; Scott, Geikie, Dana.

Owing to fertility, rivers, and climate, plains are the centres of civilization. Shaler, "Our Continent."

3. Plateaus: A., 18; M., 28; D., 150; T., 450*; D. R., 141; McM., 133*; K., 170, 192.*.

Keith, The Piedmont Plateau, U. S. G. S., 14th annual report, 1894. Davis, New England Plateau, N. G. M.

Although such features are almost inaccessible to those in this city, yet concrete ideas may be given by excursions to the Palisades and the heights in city parks. Effect on Man.