fossils in bottom sediments, for this not only extends our knewledge of the distribution of fish beyond their areas of spawning but yields information on the history of peristancy, fluctuations, and competition of fish stocks. Thus at its outset a fishery can proceed with vital knowledge of the history of the fish. and, through a study of the associated microfossils, a knowledge of the organic, oceanic, and meteorological condition under which it has thrived or declined.

Under rather rare conditions along coasts sediments are deposited rapidly and are not subsequently disturbed. Thus the record of fishes, the oceanography and something of the meteorology can be read in calendar pages of a few years or so for several thousand years.

The implications of a broad survey exploiting this entry into the record of the oceans of this world are very great.

(d) Plankton collections.-Much is known about the distribution of plankton in rather limited regions of the world oceans. A much broader understanding is essential to the evaluation of the planet's productivity, of potential fisheries, and, of course, to the full significance of research into circulation and the oceanographic changes recorded in the recent past as discussed above.

II. APPRAISAL OF THE OVERALL NATURAL CONSTRAINTS, LIMITS, AND OPPORTUNITIES OF OCEAN USE

Specific projects for utilization of the oceans can be profitably approached on and ad hoc basis. For example, a new fishery, a tidal powerplant, a disposal area for nuclear waste, or etc. can be established on the basis of regional investigations and the resultant understanding.

However, the significance of the oceans to the needs of the world's human population is best comprehended not by a multiplicity of local studies, but rather by an evaluation of the planetary potential, its constraints, its limits, and its opportunities.

Although data for such approaches are in some cases scanty, enough exists for us to set significant limits, adequate for long-term guidance. As further data are available these overall approaches can be perfected.

As examples I can quote the results of studies that show:

(a) Oceanic evaporation and the resultant land precipitation is a sufficient rainfall for the optimum terrestrial agriculture for some 40 times the world's present population.

(b) The total tidal power in the world's oceans is less than 10 percent of the expected human power needs at the onset of the 21st century, with the available tidal power much less than this.

(c) Outside of the nuclear power resources, the greatest single utilizable energy reservoir on this earth is that represented by the temperature gradient of the ocean. This giant low-level reservoir exceeds the total estimated fossil fuel reserves of earth.

(d) The capacity of the oceans to receive nuclear waste is such that a distributed input of about 100 tons of mixed fission products annually would give rise to acceptable levels of radioactivity in marine foods. This input represents about 10 percent of the estimated human electrical power requirements in the year 2100.

(e) The common fisheries of the oceans are ultimately capable of supplying the total protein needs of a world population that is somewhat greater than at present. They are capable of supplying the animal protein requirements for a population of 60 billion people.

A harvest concentrating on the herbivores in the sea could supply an order of magnitude greater yield.

(f) It can be shown that, because of their dilution and microscopic dimensions, the primary food materials of the sea can probably never be profitably harvested by methods involving the input of energy from external sources (such as nuclear or fossil fuel power) for pumping, straining, etc. Thus such primary harvest must use sources of energy contained in the ocean, such as ocean currents, the motion of organisms, or the activity of filter-feeding creatures.

Ocean "farming," as the analog to terrestrial farming, as a consequence will be restricted to special limited regions of the sea such as bays or coral lagoons. The general harvest of the oceans productivity in the ultimate is constrained to methods paralleling terrestrial "ranching" and grazing, where a preferred herbivore is sent to range (if a filter-feeding fish), or cultural on artificial substrata (if it is an attached filter-feeding organism, like a

mussel). The potential of these approaches is immense. Indeed, they are immensely successful in limited areas now.

(g) Certain minerals, such as manganese, are accumulating in the oceans at rates greater than any immediately foreseeable harvest. They, therefore, can be considered to be renewable resources.

I have selected the above as examples of the guidance that can stem from overall evaluation of the planetary resources. It is clear that further research will refine the evaluation of these constraints and permit and reveal others.

III. IDENTIFICATION OF GENERAL OPERATIONAL INADEQUACIES AND EXPLORATION OF IMPROVED APPROACHES

One of the important functions of ocean technology must be to recognize broad deficiences in our ability to deal with the environmental conditions. If a case is of sufficiently broad applicability should be subjected to a generalized analysis, with the intent of arriving at an analysis applicable to the broadest possible ranges of related problems. Stated somewhat more objectively, there comes a time when problems such as motion control at sea or pressure exclusion are of sufficiently wide importance in manifold circumstances that sophisticated analyses of the most general application are demanded.

Examples resulting from quite general analyses of operational problems of this nature include:

(a) The FLIP platform that has shown itself to be so emancipated from surface motion that a new order of magnitude of measurements can be conducted from it.

(b) Surface platforms moored in the deep sea.-General analysis of the problems (and the solution of unanalyzable environmental constraints) have made possible the mooring of instrument platforms in depth as much as 3,000 fathoms for periods of a large part of a year.

(c) Pressure exclusion.-Advanced analysis of pressure resistant materials and structures have greatly enlarged our capabilities of operating on or near the bottom of the deep sea.

(d) Others. A rather large inventory of power sources, recall devices, autonomous operators, sound sources, etc., all are of wide applicability and use.

There are still many generalized problems, however, that are so universal and disabling as to demand careful attention and thought.

Conspicuous examples include:

(a) The handling of masses overside in a seaway.—We have made very little progress in handling masses over the side of a ship since the time of early navigators. The lowering of a small boat in a seaway is still fraught with serious hazard, even from the greatest vessels of our Navy. Part of the problem of the control of motion, we nevertheless are obliged to operate from rolling ships, and the capability of handling masses over the side should be greatly enhanced.

(b) Mastery of the ocean air.-Present investigations and operations at sea are restricted to clumsy surface craft or to brief vicarious overpasses by aircraft or satellite.

The development of a truly marine aircraft would have almost inestimable impact on every phase of oceanographic investigations and ocean operations, civil and military. Present aircraft are barely tolerated by the sea in brief passages. Careful attention should be devoted to the possibilities of a craft designed specifically for pelagic operations. Interim advantages could ensue from developments leading to improved ocean contact by fixed winged aircraft.

IV. INTERDISCIPLINARY OCEAN TECHNOLOGY

One point that I hope to emphasize in these remarks is that the traditional mechanical, structural, electrical, or agricultural technology of man's terrestrial activity, cannot simply be immersed in sea water, and thus brought to bear on the problems of the marine realm. There are many reasons for the inapplicability of this approach, but paramount among these reasons is the strong interaction between the various organic and inorganic entities. The chemicals, organisms, and motions of the sea interact in complex and intimate ways. For example, whereas intervention of native creatures or plants into terrestrial engineering works is a newsworthy event (e.g. squirrels biting cables, or starlings in a jet engine), the absence of such biological intervention in the sea is the unusual event. Thus floats are fouled by attached organisms; fish gather about

any installation, bite, make noise, stir the water; other creatures enter any crevices, excavate and drill.

At the same time other natural events take unfamiliar form in the sea. Landslides become strong density flows, earthquakes result in brief but powerful increases in the hydrostatic pressure, and internal invisible waves confuse experiments and ASW search.

A great list of such interactions could be set down, all emphasizing the fact that the ocean technologist must be very broadly trained and always cognizant and alert to the range of possible compromises of classical engineering approaches. Laboratory tests, for example, cannot duplicate the corrosion of a metal under an unknown organism, or indicate what creature will immobilze a part intended to move undersea.

V. TECHNICAL LEARNING FROM NATURE'S SOLUTION TO OCEANIC PROBLEMS.

It is a platitude to state that the organisms of the sea have solved many of the important problems that face man in his utilization of the sea. Energy supply, light production, echo location, communication, propulsion, navigation, thermal control, oxygen deficiency, osmotic control, and control of the bends are a few of the problems that marine creatures have solved.

Studies of the manners by which these solutions have been achieved have important implications to ocean technology, for, in many of the understood cases, these have been clean basic solutions. It has been stated with considerable truth that man's development of high performance submersibles would have earlier advanced had the fast-swimming fish been studied sooner.

The solutions that creatures have evolved can be considered to be genetic solutions. In most cases we are probably restricted to learning from the organisms. In some cases, however, we may be able to employ the genetic information directly.

For example, there are some 50 or more species of higher plants (halophytes) capable of living in waters even more saline than sea water. These plants possess effective systems for the desalination of sea water, and hence also the genetic information on how this is accomplished.

Since these are flowering plants derived from many families this genetic information should be transferable to our useful crop plants in selective hybridization experiments. Successful breeding of this nature would introduce order of magnitude increases in the salt tolerance of crop plants. Not only might this allow the development of a sea water agriculture but, possibly and more importantly, permit the conduct of an effective terrestrial agriculture in saline soils and with saline waters. Such soils and water are one of the rapidly developing problems of desert agriculture under perpetual irrigation. The larger woody halophytes, such as the mangroves or the Siamese citrus may be useful as salt excluding rootstocks for our useful fruit trees.

Other direct utilizaiton of the genetic know-how of marine organisms are probably not of such far-reaching consequences as the crossbreeding of salt tolerant plants and crop plants.

The direct use of marine creatures to populate inland saline lakes has been spectacularly successful, however; although such introductions have not been widely attempted.

VI. APPLICATION OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNICAL METHODOLOGY AND KNOWLEDGE TO OCEAN SCIENCE

The other half of the interrelation between technology and ocean science has received little attention. It is clear that hydrodynamic analysis, boundary layer theory, dimensional analysis, high-pressure chemistry, investigations on electrolytes, etc., represent powerful methods and have acquired a fund of knowledge applicable to many of the problems of ocean science. Some of the high-pressure engineering work on phase transformation in minerals, and dimensional analysis of organisms has yielded important results. However, much of the potential yield of interaction between the two fields lies unharvested. The two fields have largely neglected this important aspect of their interrelationships. It can undoubtedly be stimulated only in the university milieu.

VII. IDENTIFICATION OF HUMAN NEEDS FOR AND HUMAN CONSTRAINTS TO OCEAN USE

A number of ocean technological programs appear to have suffered from an inadequate appraisal of needs. These inadequate appraisals are of two de

grees. In some cases the expression of "need" has arisen from enthusiasts and has been undertaken on the basis of this enthusiasm without adequate economic analysis. Desalination programs have suffered from this ill.

In other cases, the significance of the development has been judged from an inadequate, partial, or anachronistic basis.

A few examples will clarify this point:

(a) Domestic fisheries as operational and technological tests and experience.— It is clear that many of the domestic fisheries of the United States have suffered from a decline in product and effectiveness. These declines are partly the result of a long period during which the technical development of fisheries has been suppressed as an element of control in management. Additional constraints have been imposed by legislative pressure from conservationists and noncommercial users such as sportfishermen. When economically appraised as simple producers of fishery products, revival of these fisheries appears to be only modestly rewarding. Thus the pressure of recreational users may dominate even where no justification exists. The record of a number of fisheries shows, however, that the greatest rewards have ensued where fishing techniques and product practice, developed in domestic waters have been extended into new waters elsewhere. The tuna and fishmeal industry are important cases in point, where the exported know-how has been spectacularly rewarding to domestic entrepreneurs and investors.

We should thus look at the economics of domestic fisheries in this wider view. Particularly now, when new tools and approaches permit management to be carried on at a much more sophicticated level, this management know-how also becomes an exportable product.

(b) Noncommercial uses of the ocean.-Many of the present and continuing domestic conflicts in the uses of the environment stem from our drive toward the recreational and esthetic uses and our cultural inability to set up decision criteria by which these uses can be evaluated in comparison with the conventional practical employment of the environment. This defect in our decisionmaking process extends, of course, into many areas other than the marine realm. However, with increasing discretionary time on the hands of members of our society, our domestic conflicts are increasing rapidly.

An important point to note here is that conservationists and recreational interests, in the absence of objective criteria for decision, have often been forced to emotionalism and irrational actions and arguments in defense of their interests. A prime example of events of this nature is the attitude of the sports interests in the newly established anchovy fishery off the west coast.

Rather than dwelling on these conflicts, however, it is profitable to consider what opportunities have been obscured by this lack of decision criteria.

Undoubtedly there are many. Immediately at mind, however, are the following that relate to the uses of the marine environment:

(a) Superstable platforms.-The implications of the superstable platforms, discussed previously, to marine and military science are obvious. However, their implications to marine sports and recreation are equally great. After all, they fundamentally solve one of the most powerful dissuaders of deep sea recreation-sea sickness. Offshore sports fishing platforms, midocean refuges and supply bases, and, even, midocean hostelries become feasible.

(b) Small boat harbors.-Recreational boat harbors, from a harbor engineering standpoint, have been considered to be miniature commercial harbors. However, nature teaches us by example that small boat harbors can possess completely unique characteristics based on their dimensions and nonlinear wave refraction and that these are at once more useful and safer than harbors of conventional design.

(c) Recreational beaches.-For 20 years enough has been known of wave refraction to understand, and perhaps duplicate the offshore configuration that gives rise to the famous surfing beaches of the world. Yet this has not been studied. The impact of constructing a great surfing beach near, let us say, Los Angeles, can hardly be estimated.

However, I, of
I should have

In these remarks, I have covered quite a range of examples. course, have omitted many more examples than I have included. also discussed weather control, bold transportation with icebergs or giant containers, Plowshare harbors, and the Red Sea power proposal.

However, and, in summary, I have intended to demonstrate through these categorized examples, the remarkable parallelism of broad ocean science and ocean technology.

It is my belief, shared by the staff and faculty of Scripps Institution of Oceanography that ocean technology is extremely well fostered and supported by its close association with broad and inclusive ocean science.

Regional technical experimentation in the ocean realm also has an important place in testing and learning of specific regional opportunities that are revealed in the broad picture. The regional experiment attains special importance when it is so alined.

In summary, I wish to make two points:

(1) In order for a local marine station (as a sort of "wet" agricultural and engineering experiment station) to be effective, it must be adjunctive to a broad-scale ocean technology, paralleling, supporting, and mutually drawing from an equally wide program of ocean science; and,

(2) It must be closely associated with a first-rate university, with departments in geophysics and in the basic sciences and engineering. It will also avoid basic misidentification of needs if it maintains rapport with the humanities and economics departments of the university. Senator PELL. Our next witness is Dr. David Potter, of the General Motors Corp., Sea Operations Division, Santa Barbara, Calif. And I would like also to pass on to you Senator Murphy's greetings and regrets that he can't be with us this morning.

STATEMENT BY DR. DAVID S. POTTER, HEAD OF SEA OPERATIONS DEPARTMENT, GENERAL MOTORS DEFENSE RESEARCH LABORATORIES, SANTA BARBARA, CALIF.

Dr. POTTER. Thank you, Senator Pell. My name is David S. Potter. I am head of the Sea Operations Department, General Motors Defense Research Laboratories, Santa Barbara, Calif. I am also a member of the Governor's Commission on Ocean Resources of the State of California. I would like to limit my comments to a few points which I feel should be stressed and also to comments on the administrative procedures outlined in S. 2439 which seem to be controversial.

Many of us who have been concerned with the exploitation of our ocean resources have felt a sense of urgency which we have failed to transmit to the lay public, and only partially transmitted to those in Government. Probably this is because the case has not always been well documented. As you are well aware, the loss by the United States of a leading position in maritime transport happened many years ago and is dated by some historians at about the time of the Civil War. To change our relative position in this area will be a heroic undertaking. This matter is not the reason for the urgency which I feel.

On the other hand, the decline in our fishing industry relative to world production is more recent and is as yet reversible. The largescale extraction of nonliving resources from the sea (except petroleum) is still some time in the future, but it is not so far away that this Nation can afford the casualness toward it which we have displayed to date. If we do not move now it is likely that the fishing industry will join the shipping and shipbuilding industries as unsalvageable without massive help or subsidy. If we do not move now, we may not have a free choice in participating in offshore mining in the future.

My second general comment relates to the kind of education needed for ocean exploitation. Some concern has been expressed by my