which it is sometimes a component part. Its specific gravity is about four, and its hardness very great. From the subjoined analyses, stated in centesimal ratios by Dr. Kidd, it appears that the constituents of corundum, as well as its specific gravity, are nearly the same as those of emery, which is used for the like purpose by European lapidaries *. As China abounds in the primitive rocks, it is consequently rich in metals. Gold is obtained chiefly in the native state from the sands of the rivers in Yun-nân and Sze-chuen, near the frontiers of the Burmese country, which is well known for the quantity of gold it produces. What is called the Kin-shâ-keang, or "Gold-sand River," is a portion of the great Keang in the earlier part of its course; and the largest amount of the precious metal is said to come from Ly-keang-foo, near that river, and Yoong châng foo, on the borders of Ava. In Yun-nân also are worked silver mines; and indeed the great quantities of silver brought to Lintin for many years past, to be exchanged for opium and exported to India, have proved that there must be abundant sources in the empire, notwithstanding what has been said of the general prohibitions against such mining on the part of the government. Ordinary copper, whence the base metal coin of the country is made, comes from Yun-nân * Mineralogy, vol. i. p. 153. and Kuei-chow. A good deal of this is called Tze-lae, or "natural,” as being found in the beds of torrents. An abundance of malachite, or green copper-ore, is obtained near the great lake in Hoo-kuâng, and is pulverized by the Chinese for green paint. The famous pe-tung, or white copper, which takes a polish not unlike silver, is said to come exclusively from Yun-nân. A considerable quantity of quicksilver is obtained in Kuei-chow; and there is a rich mine of tutenague, or zinc, in Hoo-pě. CHAPTER XX. AGRICULTURE AND STATISTICS. Meteorology-Annual Averages-Typhoons-Discouragements to Husbandry --Objects of Cultivation-Absence of Pasture-Allotment of Wastes-Manures-Irrigation-Rice-fields-Cheap Cultivation-Population-Encouragements to it-Obstacles to Emigration-Chinese Census-Inconsistent Accounts-How to be reconciled-Latest Census-Positive Checks-Land-taxRevenues partly in kind-Salt-tax-Public Expenditure-Deficient Revenues -Existing Abuses. IN connection with the subject of this chapter, it may be as well to make some general remarks on the climate and meteorology of such parts of the country as have come under the observation of Europeans. A distinguishing feature, the unusual excess in which heat and cold prevail in some parts of the empire at opposite seasons, as well as the low average of the thermometer round the year, in comparison with the latitude, has been already noticed* and explained as resulting, according to the investigations of Humboldt, from the position of China on the eastern side of a great continent. Although Peking is nearly a degree to the south of Naples-the latitude of the former place being 39° 54', of the latter, 40° 50′-the mean temperature of Peking is only 54° of Farhenheit, while that of Naples is 63°. But as the thermometer at the Chinese capital sinks much lower during *Vol. i. p. 123. winter than at Naples, so in summer does it rise somewhat higher; the rivers are said to be frozen for three or four months together, from December to March; while during the last embassy in September, 1816, we experienced a heat of between ninety and one hundred degrees in the shade. Now it is well known that Naples and other countries in the extreme south of Europe are strangers to such a degree of long continued cold, and not often visited by such heats. Europe, observes Humboldt, may be considered altogether as the western part of a great continent, and therefore subject to all the influence which causes the western sides of continents to be warmer than the eastern; and at the same time more temperate, or less subject to excesses of both heat and cold, but principally the latter. The neighbourhood of Canton, and of other cities on the coast, to the sea causes this tendency to be greatly modified; and indeed the climate of the larger portion of the empire seems to be, upon the whole, less subject to extremes than that of the capital. Taking it all the year round, and with the exception of some oppressive heats from June to September, it may be questioned whether a much better climate exists any where than that of Canton and Macao; the former place being as low as latitude 23° 8' north, and the latter about a degree to the south of it. The mean annual temperature of those places is what commonly prevails in the 30th parallel. It is surprising to contrast their meteorological averages with those of Calcutta, a city which stands very nearly in the same latitude. The following table was the result of observations made at Canton during a series of years: the average fall of rain was taken |