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ducting on this account certain amounts from their wages. But the wages are not paid; the men are told by the contractors that the Government has not paid them—the result is long arrears. And at length some of the men, weary of waiting, go away in disgust, and are compelled to sell the wages due to them, at an enormous discount, to the shopkeepers.

The published returns appear very satisfactory. For instance, in October, 1883, the receipts over the whole line are stated at 1,169,903 milreis, and the expenditure at 633,939 milreis; for November, 1883, receipts 1,054,307 milreis, expenditure 505,076 milreis; and for February, 1884, receipts 861,454, expenditure 478,053 milreis; but nothing is said as to the liquidation of, or interest on, the cost of construction. The dividends are, I believe, about five per cent. per annum.

The Estrada de Ferro Oeste de Minas.-This line was opened August 28, 1881, It extends from Sitio on the Estrada de Ferro Dom Pedro II. (364 kilometres from Rio) to the town of São João del Rey; and the majority of the imports and exports to and from the Pará valley and that neighbourhood are conveyed by this railway. The length of the line is 100 kilometres (62 miles), and the gauge is only 0.76 metre, or 2 feet 6 inches. It is proposed to extend this road to the navigable waters of the Rio Grande, that flows into the Rio Paraná, which goes to Buenos Aires. During thirteen months the receipts on this railway were 160,585 milreis, and the expenditure 127,219 milreis. There were 10,454 passengers.

It is amusing when the giant American locomotive which draws the cars from Rio de Janeiro steams into the station at Sitio to see the microscopic engines of this railway, with its train of diminutive carriages waiting on the other side of the platform.

Estrada de Ferro Ouro Pretana.-This branch line from the Estrada de Ferro Dom Pedro II. near Sabará to Ouro Preto is in course of construction. It will be fifty kilometres (thirty-one miles) in length, with one metre gauge. The engineering difficulties to be overcome are enormous, and there will be many tunnels. Owing to the abundant presence of magnetic ore, the compass is rendered useless in the construction of the tunnels.

The Leopoldina line is of one metre gauge and 203 kilometres in length. It extends from Porto Novo (Estrada de Ferro Dom Pedro II.), on the Parahyba river, to Presidio. This railway was opened in July, 1877. In one half year its receipts were 430,077 milreis, and expenditure 287,055 milreis; in the next six months the receipts amounted to 836,047 milreis, and the expenditure 316,188 milreis.

The Minas and Rio Railway was constructed by Mr. James Brunlees (then President Inst. C. E.) as the engineer, Messrs. Waring Brothers being the contractors. The line was opened with a grand ceremony by the Emperor, who, with the Empress and the Conde d'Eu, went over the whole length on the 22nd and 23rd of June, 1884. A column and a half appeared in the Journal de Commercio, describing their triumphal progress and detailing all particulars of the line. The railway extends from Cruzeiro, on the São Paolo line, near Queluz, in the province of Rio, to Tres Corações, on the Rio Verde, an affluent of the Rio Grande. The total length to Tres Corações is 170 kilometres (132 miles). The gauge is one metre. The most important work is a tunnel through the Mantiqueira Mountains, 997 metres (1080 yards) long. There are also five small tunnels. This line has furnished the text for a lengthy and somewhat bitter correspondence, both at home and in Brazil, on the railways and finances of that country. But it is not my intention to add my quota here to the matter in dispute, as my statements concerning Brazilian finance will be found in a later note.

It is needless to say anything respecting other railways proposed, though not yet commenced; but I must refer for a moment to the line on the survey of which I was engaged. This railway, the Minas Central, is to extend from Christiano Ottoni (Estrada de Ferro Dom Pedro II., 438 kilometres from Rio de Janeiro) to Pitanguy, with a length of some 250 kilometres and a gauge of one metre. It has an authorized extension to São Antonio dos Patos, whence it is to proceed into the province of Goyaz, which province is at present far removed from all such means of civilization and communication. Starting on the Rio Paraopéba, which is there a mere stream, it will pass across the head waters of that river to the important town of Entre Rios,

where I passed five months, and thence, gaining the valley of the Pará (one of those originally proposed for the Government Trunk Line), it will proceed along this valley to the town of Pitanguy. A glance at the map will show the importance of this railway, especially when one bears in mind the gold deposits at Pitanguy. Pitanguy is at least twenty leagues (eighty miles) from Sabará and the Rio das Velhas, besides which there are two ranges of mountains to be crossed; the first dividing the Pará from the Paraopéba, and the second separating the Paraopéba from the Rio das Velhas. The valley of the Para is wide, beautiful, and very fertile, well-populated for those regions, and capable of untold development. Our line of railway will be of the utmost service, as at present merchandise to and from Pitanguy has, at least, some thirty-six leagues of transit to the Estrada de Ferro Dom Pedro II.; and, since the opening of the line to Queluz, it is nearer than the São João del Rey Railway. The Minas Central was strongly opposed by this lastnamed branch, which is easily understood, as it will tap the districts whence they derive much of their traffic; and the shares of that line fell heavily when the news was published of the arrival of our staff at Rio de Janeiro. The authorities of the São João Railroad presented a petition to the provincial government at the close of 1883, objecting to the Minas Central as infringing on their privileges; but the Government, having considered their request, refused to listen to it. All the landowners to whom I spoke on the subject invariably said that the São João line acabou (was done for) now our railway was in hand. Certainly the line to Pitanguy is a necessity-certainly it would vastly increase the cultivation and population, as has been the case in the last year along the newly opened Trunk Line; and the line should be made, if Brazil continues to retain the favourable opinions of English investors that it has to-day. It has a guaranteed Government interest, and must be at least as profitable as many of the others, while it may in time far surpass them. Che sará, sará ; the future of this scheme, of the province, of the empire, is fortunately in abler hands than mine, and I presume that no statements that I may have occasion to make in my notes on the finances of Brazil can do anything to retard the construction of the l'itanguy

railroad. Personally, and in the interest of many excellent residents in those parts who have proved true friends to me, and who wish for the line, I hope it may ere long be opened for traffic.*

In concluding these notes on the railways of Minas Geraes, I may remark that it appears a pity that such varied gauges should have been used. Brazil is as yet far from a "battle of the gauges," which created so much trouble in England; but some time in the future it may be found out that a mistake has been made.

NOTE ON FERNANDO DE NERONHA.

To-day, as I have stated, but little is known of this place, and ships generally give it a wide berth. It belongs to the province of Pernambuco, and lies in lat. 3° 50' south, long. 32° 25' west of Greenwich. It is distant from the coast about two hundred miles, and consists of one large island and several smaller ones,† the whole being, according to Darwin,‡ nine miles long by three broad. Darwin considers it all to be of volcanic origin; "the most remarkable feature is a conical hill, about one thousand feet high.”

It may be of interest to describe an abridged account from the translation of " A Voyage to South America, . . . undertaken by command of His Majesty the King of Spain, by Don George Juan and Don Antonio de Ulloa, both captains of the Spanish Navy, members of the Royal Societies of London and Berlin," etc.§ It is a most interesting work. These explorers landed on the islands May 21, 1745. They say, "On our arrival we were informed that the French East India Company had made a settlement on it as a convenient place for their ships to put in at for refreshments; but the Court of Portugal, being unwilling that either the French or any other nation should have a settlement so near the coast of Brazil, obliged them to evacuate it. This resolution was taken about seven years ago, since when . . . forts have been erected, and a colony settled on the island. . . . This island has two harbours capable of receiving ships of the greatest burthen: one

* Construction began January 6, 1885.

+ Hartt's "Geology and Physical Geography of Brazil," p. 478.

"Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of H. M.'s ships Adventure and Beagle," vol. iii. p. 10.

§ Published in London, 1758.

is on the north side, and the other on the north-west. . . . The barrenness of the island does not proceed from any defect in its soil, which produces every species of grain and fruits common in hot climates, as experience has sufficiently demonstrated, but from the want of moisture; for, besides two or three years often pass without any rain, there is not the least drop of water to be found throughout the island, except in some brooks. . . . On the 19th of May came on violent showers, which continued the whole time we remained near the island. The inhabitants use the water which they save in pits resembling cisterns; but this, as well as the waters of the brooks, on its beginning to rain, grow thick and brackish. The Portuguese, indeed, say that in the inward parts of the island, where these brooks have their origin, water is never wanting, and that it is clear and wholesome.

"In the inward part of the island is a Portuguese town, in which reside the parish priest and a governor, who, on advice of any ships being in sight, repair to the forts, which are all well garrisoned, there being only in fort Remedios, while we were there, near one thousand men-partly regulars sent from Fernambuco, which are relieved every six months; and partly transports, from all the coast of Brazil; and some, though few, which are settled here with their families-all being poor people and Mestizos (descendants of Spaniards and Indians). There are also some Indians who are sent to work on the fortifications, and likewise to serve the governor and other officers in the island. . . .

"The common food of the inhabitants of all ranks, both here and throughout Brazil, is the fariña de Pau or wood-meal, which is universally eaten instead of bread. . . . They are so habituated to it that, even at a table where they have wheat-bread at command, with every mouthful of it they take a little of this meal. Besides this flour, which is, in fact, nothing more than wood-meal or sawdust, both with regard to taste and smell, they eat a great deal of rice and sugar-cane, brought from Fernambuco. . . .

"After the second settlement of the Portuguese here, besides the little plantations, which was one of their first cares, they also brought over cows, hogs, and sheep, in order to breed those useful creatures. And, as a small quantity of flesh serves the

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