ing the true meaning of the word shamaim: 1. Aben Ezra maintains it to mean the atmosphere. 2. Maimonides maintains it to be the moving solar systems and planetary orbits. 3. Nachmanides, and with + him all the Cabbalists, maintain it to be the superior heavens which are above the spiritual beings called Merkaba, who again are above the solar systems and planetary orbits.

The first of these opinions cannot at all be entertained because if the word shamaim denote merely the atmosphere, we should not in the history of the creation find any mention whatever of the different solar systems, or of spiritual beings or their origin. This opinion must, therefore, be at once rejected; and we next proceed to examine the remaining two. According to the third, The Holy One (blessed be HE!) is called the rocheb shamaim, "the rider of the heavens." (Deut. xxxiii. 26.) These, as one of our Rabbies remarks, are called malchuth shamaim, 'the kingdom of the heavens,' in the plural number, because they comprise separate intelligences of various degrees and different exaltations, who surround the throne of glory; and Holy Writ comprises them all under the denomination shamaim, to imply

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Aben Ezra, or by his full name, R. Abraham bar R. Meir ben Esra, was born at Toledo, in the commencement of the twelfth century. He was a great Divine, and a good and profound commentator on Holy Writ. He was likewise famed as a physician, poet, and grammarian.

As an

astronomer he acquired great celebrity by dividing the equinoctial line into twelve equal parts. His thirst after experimental knowledge induced him to spend the greater part of his life in travelling: and, after having visited England, France, Italy, and Greece, he died on the Island of Rhodes, in the seventy-fifth year of his age. writings, which are numerous, are held in high estimation, and particularly admired for the precision of their style.

His

Nachmanides, or R. Moses bar Nachman, called, from the initials of his name, Ramban, was born at Gerona, in Spain, in the year 1194, and died in Palestine at the advanced age of one hundred and six years. He is celebrated as a Commentator, Cabbalist, and Preacher, and likewise for the public disputation held by him against a learned Spanish Friar in the presence of Alphonso, King of Castille.

that they too were created out of nothing. It appears to us proper, that the second and third opinion should be formed into one; and that consequently the word shamaim means both the physical and spiritual heavens. As these separate intelligences are employed to give motion to the different systems, which is likewise the opinion of Aristotle-that they are the animate form of the inanimate matter, and their operation is collective,-they are called by a collective name shamaim.

This will explain to us the meaning of the medrash rabba in Genesis i. 1, on shamaim, “Rab said, shamaimesh umaim, 'fire and water."" Rav Abba, son of Rav Kanna, saith, "The Holy One took fire and water. and kneaded them together; from which mixture the heavens originated."

It would be wrong to suppose that the Rabbies considered beings who are not subject to dissolution as composed of any material substances.

All the ancient philosophers, Jewish or gentile, were at a loss to explain the cause by which the heavenly bodies were kept in motion. Not that the Jewish Sages ever doubted the divine power, or questioned its ability to produce and continue such movethat creation was completely finished, or in such a state and shape as to continue therein until the end of time, and not to require any further exercise of the creative power except for its preservation, it remained inexplicable to these Sages how the heavenly bodies, which are inanimate, could observe and continue a fixed and regulated movement, according to a rational purpose and intention. They therefore came to the singular opinion, either that these heavenly bodies are animate and separate intelligences; or that they are kept in movement by such separate intelligences. It is, however, a remarkable fact, that, although not so clearly and distinctly expressed as in the celebrated system of the immortal Sir Isaac Newton, nevertheless the principal idea of that system, namely, that these movements of the heavenly bodies result from the laws of gravitation and impulsion, is to be found in the Rabbinical writers, particularly in the Akedath Itzchack, by R. Isaac ben Moses, (Arama,) who in the year 1491 was exiled from Spain, and who refers for a more detailed explanation of the same idea to the Book Shangar Shamaim, of R. Isaac ben Lateph, a native of Spain, in the thirteenth century.-EDIT.

ment: But, as in Genesis ii. 1, it is said

Rab meant to express, that all the solar and planetary systems, together with the separate intelligences, are all comprised under the word shamaim-Thus uniting the opinions of Maimonides and of Nachmanides. The second, Rav Abba, tells you why they have that collective name, namely, in consequence of the connexion between the impelling principle, and what is impelled by it accordingly the word esh, "fire," means the spiritual intelligences, and maim, "water," is used to express the material systems and orbits. Fire is the name given to the spiritual intelligences, as no other can be found which so properly expresses

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what is spiritual, although in itself not so. The qualities of imparting warmth to others without receiving from any other body, and of consuming without being consumed, render it an animating principle to every living being. Accordingly, the sacred Scriptures tell us, "The Lord thy God is a consuming fire." (Deut. iv. 24.) "The angel of the Lord appeared to him in the flame of fire." (Exod. iii. 2.) "One of the seraphim flew to me and in his hand he had a fiery coal." (Isaiah vi. 6.)

Our Rabbies say human souls were created at the same time as the angels, and are with them comprised in the name of shamaim.

DIVISION VI.

SECT. 1.-The natural disposition of the buman mind occasions man to be influenced in his opinions and actions by those with whom he associates, and his conduct to be dependent on that of his friends and countrymen. Therefore his duty is at all times to associate with the just, and to dwell with the pious, in order that he may profit by their example; and to avoid the society of evil-doers, who walk in the dark, in order that he may not imbibe their sinful practices. Therefore Solomon saith, He that frequents the wise will become so himself, but the associates of knaves break down." (Prov. xiii. 20.) Thus likewise begins the first Psalm, "Blessed is the man who walketh not in the counsels of the wicked, who standeth not in the way of sinners, and who sitteth not in the seat of scorners."

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If a man dwells in a land where evil customs prevail, and the inhabitants are impious, let him quit it and seek another, the inhabitants of which are just and their customs pious. And if the inhabitants of every country he knows are evil-disposed, as is the case in our days, (the twelfth century,)—or he is prevented reaching the land, the inhabitants of which are just, either through sickness or war, let him withdraw from worldly associations: as is said,

"Let him sit alone and keep silent." (Lamentations iii. 28.) Should people in his native home be so corrupt, that they do not permit him to live retired, but force him to join in their evil practices, then let him seek refuge in a cavern, or in a wilderness, far away from all human society, rather than suffer himself to become corrupted by their sinful example; as the prophet says, "O that some one would grant me in the wilderness the dwelling of a wanderer, and I would quit my people and abandon them." (Jer. ix. 2.)

SECT. 2.-We are commanded to associate with the wise and pious, in order to learn their ways; and as it is said in the law, "Ye shall attach yourselves to Him," you shall attach yourselves to every thing that leads to Him, to sanctity and perfection It is therefore, proper to strive to marry the daughter of the pious man, or to give a daughter in marriage only to such a one; to eat, drink, converse, and commune with the pious. And according our Rabbies emphatically say, "Cover thyself with the dust of their feet, and imbibe their words with the thirst of eager attention."

SECT. 3. It is a command to love every Israelite like thyself. His welfare, his reputation, and his property must be dear to thee like thine own.

anger shall break out against you, and I will cause you to perish by the sword, so that your wives shall be widows and your children orphans." (Exodus xxii. 24.) The Holy One (blessed be HE!) has vouchsafed to grant them a particular covenant, that when they invoke him against their oppressors they shall be heard; as is said, "When they call up to me, I will hear them; for I am merciful." (Exodus xxii. 23.) This prohibition to offend them is, however, only in cases where it may cause them injury; but when it is for their good, as, for instance, the teacher to instruct them in the law, or in his trade, it is a duty to reprove them. Nevertheless a distinction ought to be made in their favour, and they should be treated with greater forbearance than other pupils, so as to instruct them mildly, with great patience and attention; for it is said, "The Lord will defend their cause, "&c. (Psalm cxl. 12.) Whether the child have lost father or mother, it is alike called an orphan, until it attains the age to protect itself.

DIVISION VII.

SECT. 1.-He that slanders his neighbour, breaks a negative commandment; as is written in the law, "Thou shalt not go about as a talebearer, amongst thy people." (Levit. xix. 16.) He that becomes guilty of this sin may cause the destruction of life. Learn this from the fatal example of Doeg the Edomite, (1 Sam. xxii. 9,) and therefore the law joins to the above prohibition, "Neither shalt thou stand against the blood of thy neighbour;" because calumny will lead to bloodshed.

SECT. 2. What is called talebearing? He that fetches and carries, goes about from one to another, and says, "I heard so and so from such an one. Such an one has done such a thing." And even should what he asserts be true, it is still mischievous and pernicious, as this prohibition comprises the fearful sin of speaking evil of any one, though it be truth. For if he tell lies, it is called " calumniating." And of the foultongued man, who says, "That man is of such a character; his pa

rents were such ones; this is what I have heard concerning him," and other the like slander,-it is said, "The Lord will utterly destroy all deceitful lips, and the tongues that speak scornfully against their neighbour." (Psalm xii. 3.)

SECT. 3.-There are three sins for which man is punished in this life, and has no share in the life to come; namely, idolatry, fornication, and bloodshed: But calumny is equal to all three, and he that utters slander is like an apostatizing Atheist; and this crime generally causes injury to three,-to him that slanders, to him that is slandered, and to him that listens to the slander.

SECT. 4.-Refined calumny (scandal) is not less a sin; namely, he that does not directly slander, but does so by innuendo: As, were he to say, "Do not speak of such a one; or praising one to the disparagement of another; or a sort of half praise, by which he robs him of his free share of commendation. All these are meant by Solomon, when he says, "He that praises his neighbour with a loud voice, is considered as if he slandered him." In like manner if a man exercise his wit at the cost of another, even though it be done without any feeling of ill will, Solomon says, "Like a witling is the archer, whose arrows bring death." (Prov. xxvi. 18.)

SECT. 5.-He that speaks of his neighbour any thing to the injury of his honour or his property, or to hurt or to frighten him, be it in his presence or behind his back, even if it be imparted as a secret, it is always considered as calumniating; and although what is communicated to three is no longer to be considered a secret, nevertheless he that repeats, in order to give greater publicity to the slander, is a calumniator.

SECT. 6. It is prohibited to live in the neighbourhood of tale-bearers and slanderers; much less to hold any intercourse with them. The decree of punishment against our fathers in the wilderness was not sealed or made irrevocable, for any other sin save that of calumny.

SECT. 7.-It is prohibited to take vengeance; for it is said, "Thou shalt not revenge thyself." This is