promote the perfection of mankind, did grant the divine influence, without which there can be no perfection, to the few as integral parts of the whole human race; than it is, that the same Providence did grant to all other animals not only what is requisite for their preservation, but likewise what is conducive to their perfection according to their respective degrees in the scale of creation. Directions given by the individual thus selected by Providence to promote the perfection of mankind by means of the divine influence, are called "divine laws." Their relative degree of importance to the natural laws of society is as that of the regulating principle in a piece of mechanism, to its accessories. CHAPTER VII. THE foregoing chapters have demonstrated the existence of two distinct systems of law: 1. The natural Laws of Society, which in their perfection become civilization; and 2. The Divine Laws. The natural laws concern man as a member of society independently of time and place: Civilization depends on time and place: The Divine laws are dictated by the divine influence, through the medium of a prophet or messenger sent by the Deity, (as were Adam, Noah, Abraham and Moses,) and are binding on all to whom they are imparted. We have called one of these systems principal, and the other accessary, because the natural laws direct how to avoid wrong and pursue right: Civilization teaches to avoid impropriety, and to pursue propriety, according to a received standard: But the Divine laws are intended to prepare man for the knowledge that his soul is immortal, and therefore capable of true felicity, and point out to him the means of attaining it. They teach him what is truly wrong, which he is to avoid; what is truly right, which he is to pursue; and how to renounce all transitory good, so as to be indifferent about being deprived of it. In addition to this, they dictate the most perfect rules of equity, with respect to society, in order that the - uncertainty which pervades the natural laws may not interfere with that felicity which it is the special province of the Divine laws to afford. CHAPTER VIII. THE inferiority of natural to Divine laws has been happily expressed by the inspired poet, in Psalm xix. 7-10; where he enumerates six important points, in each of which the superiority of the Divine laws is clearly manifest. They are as follow: 1. The natural laws are insuffi cient to render the knowledge of man perfect, or to affect his immortality, so as to qualify his soul to return to the land of life whence it came to him; as they do not extend their influence beyond doing right and acting with propriety : Whereas the Divine laws not only inculcate right and propriety, but likewise distinguish between truth and error in the mind. This meaning David conveys in the words, The law of the Lord is perfect, restoring the soul." 2. Even the knowledge of what is right or wrong, proper or improper, which is all that the natural laws are capable of embracing, cannot by them alone be firmly and immutably settled; because it is very possible, that a something may by us be considered as proper or improper, which in itself is not so. For, impossible as it is that any one should intuitively be provided with the ability needful to carry on any art or trade to perfection, it is equally impossible that any Legislator, composing his laws according to the dictates of human wisdom only, should be free from error, so as immutably to decide what is proper or improper; and therefore his decision on any subject whatsoever cannot be a certain rule of conduct for others to adopt. In proof of this we find that even Plato might, and actually did, fall into great error; for he says, "It is proper that the women belonging to any one class of society should be common to all the members of that class, such as the great, the traders, the labourers and so forth, respectively." This Platonic rule of propriety the Divine laws most strongly condemn; as we find in Genesis xx. 3; where Abimelech, king of Gerar, having taken Sarah from her husband, is told, Behold thou must die for the woman thou hast taken : She is a man's wife." And he justifies himself by the assertion that he was ignorant of that fact. Aristotle likewise reprobates this rule of Plato; and their difference of opi. nion on this subject is a proof that no human reason is of itself sufficient to pronounce a decision on what is proper or what is improper, in a manner that will receive the unqualified sanction of all men, at all times, and in all places; much less can we rely on it to settle matters of superior knowledge, such as the question, whether the universe is created or increate, or the like. The Divine laws alone are able to set such questions at rest; and accordingly David says: "The testimony of the Lord is sure, mak. ing wise the simple." 3. The natural laws cannot bestow inward joy on their observers. Their promises have no tendency to afford satisfaction to the mind; and, even if they had, there is no certainty or guarantee for their performance. Moreover, their observer cannot promise himself any merit from their observance: Indeed, their vagueness leaves him in doubt whether his observance be meritorious at all. But obedience to the Divine laws will confer that inward joy, and will afford satisfaction to the mind, because their observer is certain that the righteousness they command is the true righteousness, and that their observance is really meritorious; as the Psalmist says, "The statutes of God are righteous, and rejoice the heart." 4. Natural laws cannot prescribe the conduct to be observed on particular occasions, or extend their dictates to any special case that may occur. All that they can do is, to lay down general rules, the special application of which they leave to the judgment of the individual. Thus Aristotle, in his book on ETHICS, repeatedly uses the expression, that, in a moral respect, it is proper always to act in a manner most becoming the time and place: But he does not specify what is 66 C becoming at particular times and places, or what times or places are becoming for particular actions; he leaves this to be decided by the common sense of every man. Again: In the same work, (Ethica Magna,) he tells us, that " particular cases must be weighed according to the circumstances under which they occur:" But he leaves us no rule by which to adjust the balance, except propriety. Had it been possible for erring humanity to lay down uniform rules applicable to all cases, Aristotle would have done it; his mind being as expansive, and his reasoning faculties as great and powerful, as those of any man who lived either before or after him. But he did not do it, because he could not. The Divine laws alone supply this deficiency: Thus, while in the Ethics of Aristotle we find," he is pious who wisely observes a middle course between the extreme enjoyment of voluptuousness, or of eating and drinking, and total abstinence ; he only adds, "Teachers of morality recommend that man should act in a manner becoming the time and place, and becoming his particular constitution and the society he frequents." But not one of these moral teachers instructs us when, where, and how it becomes us to act. The Divine laws, on the contrary, explicitly direct us in every one of these cases. They tell us with whom, when, where, and with what motive, we are permitted to satisfy our sensual cravings; what kind of food is permitted, and from what we are to abstain; and, while they allow the enjoyment of wine, forbid all excess, by commanding that no person in a state of intoxication be permitted to perform the rites of divine worship, or to pray. Thus likewise we find, that moralists recommend valour as a virtue; but at the same time they maintain, that it is improper for any man to expose himself to death, except in case it be more desirable to him to die than to live: But they cannot, and therefore do not, decide the particular case to which they allude. The Divine laws, however, explicitly declare that case to be whenever it tends to glorify the name of God, and 1 that then only, (as in the case of Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah,) or in combating the enemies of God and their evil deeds, (as in the case of Samson,) death is more desirable than life. Thus, whilst on all momentous subjects natural laws are insufficient, and the casuist who is guided by them gropes about in the dark like the blind, "the commandment of God is pure, enlightening the eyes." 5. The laws of nature, being of human origin, and consequently imbued with all the imperfections of humanity, cannot decide what is proper or improper at all times. For, what is at one time considered as proper and becoming, may at another be held as quite the reverse: As, for instance, marriage with a sister, which in former days was considered as becoming, but which is at present justly held to be improper. They are therefore subject to continual alteration or improvement, as the progress of human reason may dictate. The Divine laws, on the contrary, originating from the perfect wisdom of the Deity, lay down their rules once and for ever. They can never become subject to any alteration, as they are free from all error; and their purity 6. Natural laws cannot 'decide to a nicety on the just and proper measure of punishment that is due to the violator of their enactments; nor have they any inward control, or the means of punishing concealed guilt, which altogether escapes their jurisdiction: Whereas Divine justice reaches where all human research would be vain; and its laws, weighing the motives as well as the deed, apportion precisely the just quantum of punishment. And although it may appear as if, in this world, the righteous man sometimes perisheth in his right, whilst the transgressor thrives in his guilt, the Divine laws give us the assurance that our existence does not terminate with this life; and that, though on earth we may not always perceive the perfect justice of events, it is because that perfect justice is reserved to a future state; or, as the PoetKing says, "The judgments of the Lord are true and righteous altoge ther." (To be continued.) III. JURISPRUDENCE OF THE HEBREWS. THE laws and precepts of the Jews are compiled in an authorized code called the Schulchan aruch ("the table spread "). The first compila tion, Arbang turim, ("the four orders,") was made by R. Jacob ben Asher ben Jechiel, a German Rabbi of the fourteenth century. It was republished, under the name BETH JOSEPH, by R. Joseph Caro, in the middle of the last century. It consists of four parts. 1. Orach chaiim ("length of life") contains ritual laws, precepts for general conduct, &c. 2. Joreh deang ("teacher of knowledge ") teaches what is permitted, and what is prohibited, by law. 3. Even hangezer ("rock of assistance") contains conjugal laws. 4. Choshen hammishpat ("breastplate of judgment") contains civil laws. Several commentaries have been written on this code, of which we shall only mention the two most in use; 1. The Magen David, by R. David ben Samuel, of Ostra, in Russia, in the middle of the seventeenth century. 2. The Magen Abraham, by R. Abraham Gumbiner, of Kalish, in the first half of the last century; and also an Appendix by the com piler.. From this code we intend occasionally to give extracts; and though the laxity of modern ideas and manners may not approve of its minute precepts, or of the rigour of a morality and religion extending its inward checks over every possible action and relation of life, and equally (if not more) intent to prevent impurity of thought as of action; we are fully convinced, that the man who obeys the precepts of this code, not from habit only, or because he has been taught so to do,but from a sincere conviction of their high source and salutary influence, will not only be a most moral and useful member of society, but likewise an acceptable worshipper in the eyes of his Creator. And though the ritual and religious laws can only concern the Israelite, the precepts for general conduct are such as any man, whatever be his creed, may practise with advantage to himself both here and hereafter. Orach Chaiim: "LENGTH OF DAYS." Paragraph I. Part the First. Rules for rising PRECEPT I.-Strengthen thyself like a lion, and arise in the morning to the service of thy Creator, as David says, "I will awake the morning," Psalm cviii. 2. COMMENTARY, MAGEN DAVID. Strengthen thyself-Prepare thyself to resist temptations from without, and evil desires from within, which during this day may assail thee: For, as is said, "Who is truly strong? He that subdues his passions." Like a lion-As a lion is the most fearless of animals, so shalt thou likewise, in the performance of thy duties, fear nothing, but rely firinly on thy God. APPENDIX. The verse, "I have set the Lord always before me," (Psalm xvi. 8,) is the great rule of the law, and the perfection of the just who walk before God. The conduct of a man, and his carriage and gestures, when alone in his privacy, are very different from what in the Morning. they would be were he in the presence IV. COMMENTARIES ON HOLY WRIT. THE following is taken from the book Akedath Itzchack, ("the binding of Isaac,") by R. Isaac the son of Moses, in the fourteenth century, and republished by R. David, Provincial of Mantua, towards the close of the sixteenth century. "In the beginning God created heaven and earth.” (Genesis i. 1.) THE Medrash Rabba,* comment Rabba, the son of Nachman, who wrote the Commentary Medrash Rabba, was, during twenty-two years, head of the College at Sora, and died some time about ing on these words, adds a quotation the year 320. His fame as a teacher was so widely spread, that he is said to have had twelve thousand students at one time under instruction. from Psalm xviii. 35, "Thy gentleness has made me great; " and then continues: "Simon, the son of Asai, said, 'A mortal first recites his name, and afterwards his titles, Alon Augistilo, alon potesta, we Augustulus, ruler.' But the HOLY ONE (blessed be He!) does not do so, but, after he has created the universe, then first he proclaims a name." as, In order to understand this exposition of the Medrash Rabba, and to discover the connection between this first verse of Genesis and this quotation from the Psalms, we must remember that the sacred writer in Genesis departs from the usual construction of the Hebrew; according to which, it ought to have been : Elohim bara bereshith, "God created in the beginning." This deviation is, however, not without its adequate cause; and this cause the Medrash explains by its quotation thus: We can form an idea of a man independent of his title; as, for instance, David the king, &c. Here we can picture to ourselves, David the shepherd, David the leader of Saul's armies, David the exile, David the king; or David abstractedly, before he was shepherd or military chief, exile or king:-And the phraseology of the verse, "Thy gentleness has made me great," conveys to our mind the progressive rise and title of David; the name DAVID Conveying an abstract idea, whatever explanatory title we may append to it. Whereas the Creator has no proper name abstractedly from his creation, because we cannot at all conceive of him abstractedly. But any name that may be assigned to him must be expressive of some one or other of his attributes; which can only be done after the creation, and on the existence of those beings in whose favour these attributes are in course of operation. This, then, explains the difference between the creature and the Creator: The former qnotes his own name first, "Augustulus, ruler; because he was Augustulus before he became ruler, would remain Augustulus even should he cease to be ruler, and because his name is altogether distinct from his title. But the Creator has no name except what arises from his attributes; therefore, such name is in itself a title, and can only be conceived after the creation on which that attribute operates. V. SPIRIT OF THE JEWISH RELIGION. TREATISE, Brochoth. Fol. 82, page 2. "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thine heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might." (Deut. vi. 5.) |