sibility for two parties to live together, and for the customary causes of adultery, excesses, abandonment, etc. The power of the father, which was formerly limitless, is, under the new code, exercised by the father as the head of the family, and by the mother in the sphere of her legal privileges. A child at sixteen years of age has a right to choose its own profession and fix the conditions of its own life.

In the United States, according to existing laws in 1903, in thirtyseven states, a married mother had no right to her own children; in sixteen states a wife had no right to her own earnings outside of the home; in eight states a woman had no right to her own property after marriage; in seven states there was no law compelling a man to support his wife and family. In these respects even Russia was in advance of the United States. For two centuries every wife in Russia has been the legal mistress of her own fortune; in 1903 every woman householder in Russia had the right to vote on all municipal matters. While thousands of little girls are employed in factories in the United States, the work of women in the fields of Russia was not so arduous, nor so detrimental to race progress as the indoor work of women in the United States. In 1903 over 9,000 wives were deserted by husbands in the United States to 500 in Russia.

The 1,500,000 women in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland enjoyed more liberal general suffrage than did 150,000 women in the United States. In Great Britain, however, there was noted a decided tendency to withhold women from the professions. The denial of Miss Bertha Cave's application for admittance as a student of Gray's Inn was made by the House of Lords on the ground that no precedent existed, and that there was no occasion for creating one. On the other hand, there was no law against the practice of medicine by women and every advantage of study offered to men is open to women also. According to the census of 1903 there were 212 women physicians fully qualified, registered in England and Wales, and altogether 249 in the United Kingdom. The new hospital for women, founded by a woman, was entirely officered by them and the Royal Free Hospital admitted women as house surgeons.

A movement was started during the year by a Turkish princess, Haririe Ben Aiad, aided by her husband, for the emancipation of Turkish women. The Princess, the daughter of a Tunisian Pasha,

learned through her husband, who was of Swedish descent, of the inferior position of women in Turkey, and gave herself with great ardor to the cause of bettering their lot. She extended her propaganda all over Europe, and everywhere the movement met with a very friendly reception.

Turkey wrestled with a race suicide question, peculiarly its own, notwithstanding the provisions which the prophet Mahomet made against that contingency. Fifty years ago the rule among Turks was to marry young and to espouse several wives, and, as a rule, families. were correspondingly large. Now all this is changed. Marriages are late, and in the enormous majority of cases are monogamous, while families are becoming small to a degree which has alarmed the government. The sultan promulgated an iradé on the subject, abolishing much of the expensive display connected with the Turkish marriages and condemning prevailing tendencies as threatening to depopulate the empire.

CHAPTER XIII

EDUCATION

General education, so far as statistics may be taken as a guide, made notable progress during the year. According to the records of the National Bureau of Education there was a substantial increase in the United States in the enrollment of pupils, in the number of teachers, and in the money paid for carrying on the schools and in that invested in school property. The whole number of pupils enrolled in the common schools was 16,009,361, an increase over 1902 of 83,474. The percentage of the total population enrolled, however, decreased twenty-two per cent, a fact attributed to the great wave of immigration. The whole number of teachers employed was 449,287, twenty-six per cent of whom were men. The average monthly salary of the male teacher was $49.98, representing an increase of fifty-three cents; that of the female teacher was $40.51, an increase of seventy-four cents. The total amount expended for schools during the year was $251,457,625, an increase of $16,249,160, an expenditure per capita of population of $3.15, per capita of pupils of $22.75. School property in 1903 was valued at $643,903,228.

Compared with other countries the United States still stood at the head in the per cent of population enrolled in the elementary schools, showing 21.6 per cent against 20.0 in Switzerland, 18.0 in England, 16.5 in Germany, 14.1 in France, 13.7 in Sweden, 10.7 in Japan, 7.7 in Italy, and 3.3 in Russia. The United States also led the world in the amount of money devoted to education. In addition to the vast sums of public money appropriated, private benefactions to the amount of $30,000,000 were received by various educational institutions. Mr. J. D. Rockefeller gave $2,000,000 to the University of Chicago, $6,000,000 to the Rush Medical College, and $485 to smaller institutions. Mr. Carnegie parcelled out $1,300,000 among different colleges, and Mr. Joseph Pulitzer bestowed $2,000,000 on Columbia,

AMERICAN SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES

333

The total number of pupils doing work of a secondary grade, that is the four years preceding college work, was 776,635, of whom 592,213 were in public high schools, representing a gain in this department over the preceding year of 41,062. Colleges and universities for both sexes and for men alone numbered 455, colleges for women 129. There were 24,955 students in the colleges for men, 63,154 in the coeducational institutions, and 25,485 in colleges for women. From all these institutions 12,141 degrees were conferred upon men, and 5,487 upon women. In the professional schools there was an increase of 29 per cent in the theological seminaries, which numbered during the year 7,372 students; of 145 per cent in the law schools, which numbered 14,057; of 241 in the medical schools, which numbered 27,062. Manual and industrial training schools enrolled 56,432 pupils in 186 institutions, including 95 of high-school grade, 48 of elementary grade, and 43 schools for Indians, and employed 1,354 teachers of elementary and secondary studies and 2,321 instructors in industrial and manual training.

Technical Education

Technical education, both at home and abroad, was strongly insisted upon by those who had the interests of nations at heart. Mr. Charles M. Schwab made the announcement during the year that he contemplated the establishment of a number of technical schools throughout the country, and the utility of such a gift was generally commended. There was a growing feeling that technical education was the right sort, especially for the men and women who have their living to make. There could be no question concerning the need for and the very general desire for such schools. With rapidly developing industries and the introduction of new methods it was necessary to success for the young to be equipped differently from the obsolete ways in vogue half a century ago. Many noted educators were inclined to the opinion that technical schools in the future would be the leading means of education for the bulk of the population. The conditions which require boys and girls to begin life struggles early, and the school which fits them practically for the conflict is the one to which the majority ought to go.

In Germany the trade schools reported a high degree of develop

ment. They fall into two groups. The first group provides instruction for apprentices in the hand trades and artisans. The second group for large manufacturing industries. Above these is the highest class, the technical high schools which are intended for and used by superior students. The engineering and textile schools are the most important in regard to manufacturing industries. Although there is no uniformity among these schools, there is a general resemblance in the scheme. The weaving school in Berlin is somewhat exceptional. The engineering schools cater for different trades and for different classes of students. Altogether the technical schools are divided thus: Building, engineering and metal trades, textiles, pottery, and art trades. Teaching and experiment were pushed to the furthest limits, and the German Government expressed itself as greatly satisfied with the results.

On June 29 the English newspapers announced a noteworthy addition to provision in Great Britain for the most advanced technical teaching and research connected with the industrial applications of science. Lord Rosebery in a public letter to Lord Monkswell stated that Messrs. Wernher, Beit & Co. had placed in his hands as Chairman of a body of trustees a large sum of money to provide the building and equipment of a London Charlottenburg. The institution was designed to be a school of the University of London, affording facilities for instruction in mining and metallurgy, electro chemistry, electric traction, bacteriology, railway and marine engineering, hydraulics and marine architecture. Lord Rosebery stated that the Royal Commissioners of the 1851 exhibition had donated a site of four acres at South Kensington. $1,500,000 had been set aside for building and its equipment. The London County Council was asked to provide a sum of $100,000 a year to maintain the institution.

Signs of Progress in Russia

According to a report issued by the Minister of Finance, 149 commercial schools were opened in Russia between 1896 and 1903. In 1903 there were 147 commercial schools with 2,180 teachers, and 32,251 pupils. The schools were spread all over Russia, but in an unequal manner, for all Siberia and the Central Asiatic provinces there was but one, that at Tomsk, whereas St. Petersburg and the ad