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ing which it was brought out that the idea had been evolved by a Wisconsin inventor twelve years previous, and the earlier invention had proved that such a gun would be so inefficient, within any practical limits of weight and power, as to be of no practical value whatever. The Norwegian cannon seemed to offer certain advantages in discharging projectiles carrying dynamite and other high explosives, although, in addition to other disadvantages it required a large storage battery or other source of electric power to be carried with it.

Long Distance Power Transmission

The longest power circuit on the Atlantic seaboard was put into operation in Canada from Shawinigan Falls to Montreal and Quebec, distances of 84 and 90 miles respectively. The current to Montreal was sent over the long circuit at a pressure of 50,000 volts, on nearly five thousand poles from the neighboring forests, the wire cables used being of aluminum instead of copper. The existing circuits carried 8,000 horse-power and it was calculated that 30,000 horse-power would shortly be transmitted. The aluminum was extracted by this power.

California made some notable achievements in power development and transmission. In the new power house of the Edison company in the San Bernardino mountains, a miner's inch of water was made to generate three and one-third horse-power, where the same amount of water in one of the low-pressure heads of the east would produce but a small fraction of one horse-power. One of the typical new plants had a pipe line six miles long and a drop of 1,960 feet to the power house, the highest hydraulic pressure of its kind ever used. A witness, describing the force of the water, declared: "Should the pressure pipe by any means become punctured near its lower end, the released jet would pierce a man's body as cleanly as would a steel-sheathed bullet from a high-power rifle. Should the full stream from the main twenty-four-inch pipe burst its bounds, the power-house, steel and concrete though it is, would be riven and ground to pieces.”

Another extraordinary enterprise of the Pacific Coast looked to obtaining power from the glacier streams of Mount Ranier, and producing an electric current on such an extensive scale that it would illuminate Seattle, Tacoma, and a score of small towns on Puget sound, as well as supplying power for all their industries.

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The Hudson River was made to deliver over 30,000 horse-power for electrical transmission from Spiers Fall to Albany, forty miles distant. By building a stone wall 1,800 feet long and 100 feet high the river was so dammed at Spiers Falls as to lift it fifty feet above its former bed and give it a fall of 80 feet.

Of the 7,000,000 horse-power available at Niagara, it was estimated that about 1,000,000 would soon be in active use. Owing to its cheap distribution, works of all kinds sprang up during the year on both the American and the Canadian side. It was freely used in Buffalo and places thirty and forty miles away were glad to secure it, since the company sold at $20 per horse-power a year for twentyfour-hour power supplied every day in the year, which was less than half the cost of the best-known economy by steam. A plant erected on the Canadian side allowed for a total output capacity of 100,000 horse-power. It contained three of the biggest dynamos in the world, each able to deliver 10,000 horse-power, while the best of those on the American side were equal to only 6,000.

Water-Power vs. Steam-Power

Notwithstanding these and many other examples of the extension of the use of water-power, Mr. Thomas C. Martin, writing for the Review of Reviews, furnished statistics to show that "in spite of the vast and spectacular developments of water-power in certain districts, the proportion of steam is much higher among all powers than it was thirty years ago, when, apparently, the use of 'white coal,' as the French call it, touched its climax. In other words, in 1870 steam furnished, in the United States, 1,215,711 horse-power, or 51.8 per cent of a total of 2,346,142; in 1880, the amount of steam power used was 2,185,458 horse-power out of a total of 3,410,837 or 64.1 per cent.; in 1890, out of an aggregate of 5,954,655 horse-power, 4,581,595, or 76.9 per cent., was steam; while in 1900 steam figured to the extent of 8,742,416 horse-power, or 77.4 per cent. in a total of 11,300,081. This increase in thirty years, from 51.8 per cent. to 77.4 per cent. of the total power shows how much more rapidly the use of steam power has increased than that of other primary sources of power. The total amount of water power reported as used by American manufacturing establishments in 1900 was 1,727,258 horse-power, 1,263,343 horse

power in 1890, 1,225,379 horse-power in 1880, and 1,130,431 horse-power in 1870. Apparently, the use of water power for manufacturing purposes has decreased relatively in thirty years from nearly one-half of the total motive power to less than one-sixth of the amount used by our manufacturers."

CHAPTER X

DISCOVERY

Four expeditions were exploring the Antarctic regions during 1903. A German expedition under Dr. von Drygalski, spent most of the year somewhere between Knox Land and Enderby Land. Four members from the staff on board the Gauss were left on Kerguelen Island to take meteorological observations for a year. One of the four died and the others were taken by the Stassfurt to Sydney, landing there on April 17. The Gauss was frozen fast in sea ice until February 8, when it was set free and began making for the north on April 8. Dr. von Drygalski reported that from where they were ice bound they could see in the distance a peak 12,000 feet high, of volcanic material. This peak was named Gaussberg. A Swedish party under Dr. Nordenskjold had its base near the Falkland Islands. Their ship was lost for a brief season in the ice near Grahams Land, but they were rescued without loss of life. A Scottish expedition led by W. S. Bruce, left the Falkland Islands for farther south early in January.

The English expedition under Captain Scott accomplished some important work, the results of which became known during the year through the relief ship "Morning," which reached New Zealand on March 25. Captain Scott's vessel, the Discovery, entered the southern icepack on December 23, 1901, in latitude 67°, and within three weeks had worked on to Cape Dare. On January 20 a party landed in an excellent harbor, Wood Bay, latitude 76° 30′, and deposited a record of the voyage. Two days later Cape Crozier was reached, and then the Discovery continued southward along the ice barriers, and on February 3 entered an inlet in longitude 174°. A captive balloon was used to study the land conditions, and sledge expeditions were sent out in various directions.

Winter quarters were found near Mount Erebus and Mount Terror. The Discovery was frozen in on March 24. In September, 1902, the

sledge expeditions began. Lieut. Royd Skelton made a record expedition to Mount Terror, travelling over the ice with a temperature as severe as 58 degrees below zero. Capt. Scott, Dr. Wilson, and Lieut. Schackleton started south on December 15, 1902. All the dogs died on the way, and the men had to drag the sledges, half the sledges at a time, over five mile stretches, so that each five miles in advance required fifteen miles travel. In spite of all difficulties, the three men succeeded in establishing a station in 80°, 40′ south, whence they continued under light loads to 82°, 17′ south. This point reached on January 1st, 1903, was the farthest south so far reached by man. Ascending an elevation, they saw mountains to the south of them at least 83°, 20' south. Sir James Ross's record was 78° and 40', while Borchgrevink's was 78° and 50'. On February 3 the party returned to the ship Discovery which had been revictualled by transferring provisions from the Morning by means of sledges.

The extensive mountain system of the Antarctic continent was one of the most important geographical discoveries ever made in the far south. The expedition also found that the ice barrier girdling the land presumably floats, being fed slowly from the land ice. Other valuable results of the exploration were rich collections of marine fauna, skins and skeletons of sea birds and seals, meteorological and geological observations, and magnetic and seismographic records. Many photographs were taken.

Since the relief ship Morning made her way back with so little difficulty, it was thought it would be no very hard matter for the Discovery to return. The latter, however, was imbedded in the ice in June eight miles from open water, and her ability to get out was so doubtful that the Royal Geographical Society appealed to the British public and to the Government for money to cover the cost of sending the Morning back to the Antarctic. Two ships the Morning and the Terra Nova left Tasmania early in December to go to the rescue of the Discovery. The Terra Nova was fitted out by the British Government, acting independently of the scientific society. She carried gun cotton with which to blast out a channel. It was the understanding that if the Discovery could not be extricated, she would be abandoned and her officers and men would be transferred to the Terra Nova.