is, however, not yet wholly established to a point capable of definite proof and must be left an open question.* Another school holds that the abstract principles held by the revolutionary are pathological, or rather psychological, arising from pathological causes. Certain it is that the exaltation of religious mysticism is tranmisssible, and there are those among us who recognise in the inverted mysticism of revolutionary fervour a sacramental Satanism which is, in its way, as potent and as inexplicable as the exaltation of the saints.

The year 1858 saw the introduction of the new Irish-American version of the I.R.B., a poison whose effects were and are to be lasting. The resources which were to come to Ireland were to

from Irish-Americans, and the motive which inspired the flow was far less love of Ireland than a searing hate of Britain. Unfortunately, it is a hatred which the British will never recognise and can never comprehend.

Stephens crossed to America at the end of 1858 and established, or rather re-organised, the existing Irish revolutionary body there on the same model as that of the I.R.B. in Ireland. A certain confusion still exists about the share of Stephens in the Phoenix Society of Skibbereen, but it seems clear that, though this had been formed by O'Donovan Rossa and Mortimer Moynihan as the Phoenix National and Literary Society, Stephens

*The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion, a book on which many of the charges that Jewish interests were behind the secret societies are founded, has since been exposed by The Times newspaper.

had on one of his organising tours in the spring of 1858 visited Skibbereen and sworn in the bulk of the society as members of his newly-formed I.R.B.

The disclosure of the Phoenix Society to the authorities by the eminently sensible Father John O'Sullivan in October of that year probably expedited Stephen's journey. The Phoenix leaders were not arrested until December 5th, 1858, and Stephens did not return from America to Dublin until the trouble had blown over,

CHAPTER V

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE I.R.B. AND THE FENIANS

STEPHENS began his organisation, according to his prepared scheme, on St. Patrick's Day, 1858. Essentially military in idea, it was established on the circle principle, probably because this was the simplest form of organisation for absorbing existing local clubs.

In the original plan a circle was, roughly, a regiment whose Centre or 'A' ranked as a colonel. The 'A' chose nine' B's' or captains, who again chose nine 'C's' or sergeants, who each chose nine 'D's' or rank and file. Each complete circle, therefore, had an establishment of 100 members. Secrecy was ensured because the 'A or Centre was only known to the 'B's,' while the 'C's' only knew their immediate 'B's,' and the rank and file' D's' only their own 'C's.'

The original oath model was :

"I, A.B., do solemnly swear in the presence of Almighty God, that I will do my utmost at every risk, while life lasts, to make Ireland an Independent Democratic Republic; that I will yield implicit obedience, in all things not contrary to the laws of God, to the commands of my superior officers; and that I shall preserve inviolable secrecy regarding all the transactions

of this secret society that may be confided to me. So help me God. Amen."

In 1859 this was altered to:

"I, A.B., in the presence of Almighty God, do solemnly swear allegiance to the Irish Republic now virtually established; and that I will do my utmost, at every risk, while life lasts, to defend its independence and integrity; and finally that I will yield implicit obedience in all things, not contrary to the laws of God, to the commands of my superior officers. So help me God. Amen."

The organisation made rapid headway, but the weight of the Roman Catholic Hierarchy was surging against the movement, and in due course the Brotherhood was excommunicated: in 1861 no Fenian could get absolution. The basis for the ban placed by the Church on any secret oath-bound society is technically that no Catholic may take an oath of secrecy which binds him to keep the secrets of his society from his Father Confessor. In the case of some Catholic secret societies, such as the A.O.H., this is eluded by an arrangement by which members of the priesthood are members of the society and are thus supposed to be familiar with all its secrets.

Fenianism, being both secret and decidedly anti-clerical, was not only banned technically, but most effectively, and there was also another serious trouble which threatened it. The American Civil War was in progress and the supply of funds for the cause was, for a time, both intermittent and slender. In 1863 propaganda by personal travel and

secret pamphlet was largely superseded by the starting of a newspaper, The Irish People, which was managed by the head Fenians, Stephens and Luby, and was edited by John O'Leary. The paper was seditious and provocative, and under cover of attacking the influence of the priesthood in politics, was markedly anti-clerical. This newspaper was financed by American money, and in America the movement was developing vigorously. In November, 1863, a grand National Convention of the Fenian Brotherhood met in Chicago and publicly admitted the object of the Society, that is to say, the separation of Ireland from the British Empire and its establishment as an independent Republic. It was also declared that the same programme was to be effected in Canada.

In the following year this annual Convention was held in Cincinnati, and a resolution was passed to the effect that the next convention would be held on Irish soil. The proceedings were semipublic, and the deluded Irish Americans subscribed liberally to the funds, which were reported to be in excess of a quarter of a million pounds.

The American Fenian Brotherhood was a separate organisation, distinct from the Irish Fenian Brotherhood or I.R.B., having its own leaders; but both organisations were on the same lines and had their officers, both civil and military oaths, emblems, and passwords, funds and stores of arms. In America the Society was but semisecret, making no mystery of its aims, its nightly drilling and all the prelude to an armed expedition. The attitude of the public and Government of the United States was not unfriendly to the Fenians,