freely than the individuals of the same species breed together. Cases will, also, be given of sexual incompatibility between certain male and female domesticated animals, which, nevertheless, are fertile when matched with any other individual of the same kind. In the early part of this chapter it was shown that the crossing of individuals belonging to distinct families of the same race, or to different races or species, gives increased size and constitutional vigour to the offspring, and, except in the case of crossed species, increased fertility. The evidence rests on the universal testimony of breeders (for it should be observed that I am not here speaking of the evil results of close interbreeding), and is practically exemplified in the higher value of cross-bred animals for immediate consumption. The good results of crossing have also been demonstrated with some animals and with numerous plants, by actual weight and measurement. Although animals of pure blood will obviously be deteriorated by crossing, as far as their characteristic qualities are concerned, there seems to be no exception to the rule that advantages of the kind just mentioned are thus gained, even when there has not been any previous close interbreeding; and the rule applies to such animals as cattle and sheep, which can long resist breeding in-and-in between the nearest blood-relations. In the case of crossed species, although size, vigour, precocity, and hardiness are, with rare exceptions, gained, fertility, in a greater or less degree, is lost; but the gain in the above respects can hardly be attributed to the principle of compensation; for there is no close parallelism between the increased size and vigour of hybrid offspring and their sterility. Moreover, it has been clearly proved that mongrels which are perfectly fertile gain these same advantages as well as sterile hybrids. With the higher animals no special adaptations for ensuring occasional crosses between distinct families seem to exist. The eagerness of the males, leading to severe competition between them, is sufficient; for even with gregarious animals, the old and dominant males will be dispossessed after a time and it would be a mere chance if a closely related member The of the same family were to be the victorious successor. structure of many of the lower animals, when they are hermaphrodites, is such as to prevent the ovules being fertilised by the male element of the same individual; so that the concourse of two individuals is necessary. In other cases the access of the male element of a distinct individual is at least possible. With plants, which are affixed to the ground and cannot wander from place to place like animals, the numerous adaptations for cross-fertilisation are wonderfully perfect, as has been admitted by every one who has studied the subject. The evil consequences of long-continued close interbreeding are not so easily recognised as the good effects from crossing, for the deterioration is gradual. Nevertheless, it is the general opinion of those who have had most experience, especially with animals which propagate quickly, that evil does inevitably follow sooner or later, but at different rates with different animals. No doubt a false belief may, like a superstition, prevail widely; yet it is difficult to suppose that so many acute observers have all been deceived at the expense of much cost and trouble. A male animal may sometimes be paired with his daughter, granddaughter, and so on, even for seven generations, without any manifest bad result: but the experiment has never been tried of matching brothers and sisters, which is considered the closest form of interbreeding, for an equal number of generations. There is good reason to believe that by keeping the members of the same family in distinct bodies, especially if exposed to somewhat different conditions of life, and by occasionally crossing these families, the evil results of interbreeding may be much diminished or quite eliminated. These results are loss of constitutional vigour, size, and fertility; but there is no necessary deterioration in the general form of the body, or in other good qualities. We have seen that with pigs first-rate animals have been produced after long-continued close interbreeding, though they had become extremely infertile when paired with their near relations. The loss of fertility, when it occurs, seems never to be absolute, but only relative to animals of the same blood; so that this sterility is to a certain extent analogous with that of self-impotent plants which cannot be fertilised by their own pollen, but are perfectly fertile with pollen of any other individual of the same species. The fact of infertility of this peculiar nature being one of the results of long-continued interbreeding, shows that interbreeding does not act merely by combining and augmenting various morbid tendencies common to both parents; for animals with such tendencies, if not at the time actually ill, can generally propagate their kind. Although offspring descended from the nearest blood-relations are not necessarily deteriorated in structure, yet some authors believe that they are eminently liable to malformations; and this is not improbable, as everything which lessens the vital powers acts in this manner. Instances of this kind have been recorded in the case of pigs, bloodhounds, and some other animals. Finally, when we consider the various facts now given which plainly show that good follows from crossing, and less plainly that evil follows from close interbreeding, and when we bear in mind that with very many organisms elaborate provisions have been made for the occasional union of distinct individuals, the existence of a great law of nature is almost proved; namely, that the crossing of animals and plants which are not closely related to each other is highly beneficial or even necessary, and that interbreeding prolonged during many generations is injurious. CHAPTER XVIII. ON THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CHANGED CONDITIONS OF LIFE: STERILITY FROM VARIOUS CAUSES. ON THE GOOD DERIVED FROM SLIGHT CHANGES IN THE CONDITIONS OF LIFE On the Good derived from slight Changes in the Conditions of Life. -IN considering whether any facts were known which might throw light on the conclusion arrived at in the last chapter, namely, that benefits ensue from crossing, and that it is a law of nature that all organic beings should occasionally cross, it appeared to me probable that the good derived from slight changes in the conditions of life, from being an analogous phenomenon, might serve this purpose. No two individuals, and still less no two varieties, are absolutely alike in constitution and structure; and when the germ of one is fertilised by the male element of another, we may believe that it is acted on in a somewhat similar manner as an individual when exposed to slightly changed conditions. Now, every one must have observed the remarkable influence on convalescents of a change of residence, and no medical man doubts the truth of this fact. Small farmers who hold but little land are convinced that their cattle derive great benefit from a change of pasture. In the case of plants, the evidence is strong that a great advantage is derived from exchanging seeds, tubers, bulbs, and cuttings from one soil or place to another as different as possible. The belief that plants are thus benefited, whether or not well founded, has been firmly maintained from the time of Columella, who wrote shortly after the Christian era, to the present day; and it now prevails in England, France, and Germany. A sagacious observer, Bradley, writing in 1724," says, " When we once become Masters of a good Sort of Seed, we should at least put it into "Two or Three Hands, where the Soils and Situations are as dif"ferent as possible; and every Year the Parties should change "with one another; by which Means, I find the Goodness of the "Seed will be maintained for several Years. For Want of this "Use many Farmers have failed in their Crops and been great "Losers." He then gives his own practical experience on this head. A modern writer3 asserts, "Nothing can be more clearly "established in agriculture than that the continual growth of any one variety in the same district makes it liable to deterioration "either in quality or quantity." Another writer states that he sowed close together in the same field two lots of wheat-seed, the product of the same original stock, one of which had been grown on the same land and the other at a distance, and the difference in favour of the crop from the latter seed was remarkable. A gentleman in Surrey who has long made it his business to raise wheat to sell for seed, and who has constantly realised in the market higher prices than others, assures me that he finds it indispensable continually to change his seed; and that for this purpose he keeps two farms differing much in soil and elevation. 66 With respect to the tubers of the potato, I find that at the present day the practice of exchanging sets is almost everywhere followed. The great growers of potatoes in Lancashire formerly used to get tubers from Scotland, but they found that "a change from the moss-lands, and vice versa, was generally sufficient." In former times in France the crop of potatoes in the Vosges had become reduced in the course of fifty or sixty years in the proportion from 120-150 to 30-40 bushels; and the famous Oberlin attributed the surprising good which he effected in large part to changing the sets.* A well-known practical gardener, Mr. Robson," positively states For England, see below. For Germany, see Metzger, 'Getreidearten,' 1841, s. 63. For France, LoiseleurDeslongchamps (Consid. sur les Céréales,' 1843, p. 200) gives numerous references on this subject. For Southern France, see Godron, Florula Juvenalis,' 1854, p. 28. 2 A General Treatise of Husbandry,' vol. iii. p. 58. 3 Gardener's Chronicle and Agricult. Gazette,' 1858, p. 247; and for the second statement, Ibid., 1850, p. 702. On this same subject, see also |