The Twentieth Amendment changed the date on which Members of the Congress take office. The Members take office in January following their election in November. The Congress by law can fix a different date. Before the change was made, the Members of the Congress usually did not take office until thirteen months after their election. The change makes it possible to carry out the will of the people at an earlier date than was possible before the amendment.

MORE AUTHORITY GIVEN TO THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

Two of the amendments added to the authority of the National Government. Many people said that the National Government should put an end to slavery in the United States. But the National Government did not have the authority to do so. The Thirteenth Amendment ended slavery. It gives the Congress authority to pass laws to prevent any person from being held as a slave. But the amendment does not limit the authority of the States or the Nation to punish crimes.

The Congress cannot place a direct tax on the people unless the amount of money to be raised by the tax is divided among the States according to population. The Supreme Court held that the income tax is a direct tax. The Sixteenth Amendment changed a part of the rule. It says that the Congress can collect taxes on incomes without dividing the tax among the States according to population.

LIMITS ON THE AUTHORITY OF THE STATES

The States had passed many laws that made it hard for the Congress, under the Articles of Confederation, to govern the Nation. It was only natural, therefore, that the Fathers of the Constitution should limit the authority of the States. They wrote into the Constitution a list of things that the States cannot do. For example, they said that no State shall coin money. This authority belongs to the National Government.

After the slaves were set free, it was thought necessary to protect their rights as citizens. Some of the States

had refused to let them be citizens. The Fourteenth ✓ Amendment made them citizens of the United States. It also made them citizens of the States in which they lived. It declares that no State shall take away the life, liberty, or property of any person except according to the law of the State. It orders the States to give equal protection of the laws to all persons. It gives the Congress authority to see that these rights are protected.

THE RIGHT TO VOTE

The Fathers of the Constitution left the States free to say who should be permitted to vote. The people who favored the Thirteenth Amendment feared that some of the States might keep the Negroes from voting because of their race or color. In order to make sure that this would not be done, the Fifteenth Amendment was added~ to the Constitution. It declares that no State shall refuse to permit a citizen to vote because of his race or color. The Nineteenth Amendment declares that no person shall be kept from voting because of sex.

The Fifteenth and Nineteenth Amendments do not give any person the right to vote. They declare that no State shall take away the right to vote because of race, color, or sex. This leaves the States free to limit the right to vote for other reasons. We shall study this right more

fully in a later chapter.

GENERAL LAWS HAVE DEVELOPED THE CONSTITUTION

The Constitution has been changed to serve the needs of the people. When it was accepted in 1789, there were no large cities. There were no railroads and very few factories. Most of the people lived on farms. Today, the majority of the people live in cities. Their lives are tied together. Our Government has served the new needs of the Nation in ways which the amendments did not take care of. How was this done?

First: The Constitution has developed through general laws. The Congress, the President, and the courts have had to have help. The Congress has passed general laws.

Boards have been set up to study the needs of the people and to advise the Congress of changes that should be made in the laws. The Congress has set up other Government boards and officers with authority to make rules that have the effect of law.

The Congress has passed laws giving the President more Departments in his Cabinet. In 1789, there were only four Departments. Today there are 10 Departments. The Congress has added new national courts as they have been needed. By these and other general laws, the Congress has helped to organize the Government under the Constitution. The Government has been changed to meet the new needs of the people of the Nation.

TREATIES HAVE DEVELOPED THE CONSTITUTION

Second: The Constitution has developed through treaties. The United States must get along well with other nations. We trade with people in many lands. The ships of other nations carry our trade. Our citizens travel, live, and die in other countries. The citizens of other nations live and trade here.

The Fathers of the Constitution did not know what matters should be covered by treaties. They preferred to let the President and the Senate develop this part of the Constitution. They declared in Article II that the President "shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur."

The Constitution does not say when or on what subjects treaties shall be made. These matters are left to the President and to the Senate. For example, the Constitution does not say whether citizens of other countries can own land in the United States. But the President and the Senate have made treaties with other nations giving their citizens the right to own land in the United States. Texas came into the Union by a treaty with the United States. These are two examples that show how treaties help to give life to the Constitution.

THE NATIONAL COURTS HAVE DEVELOPED THE CONSTITUTION

Third: The national courts have helped to develop the Constitution. They explain the meaning of our Constitution, laws, and treaties when the people cannot agree and take their question into court. The Constitution, for example, says that the President, if the Senate approves, may appoint certain officers. But can the President put a person out of office if the Senate refuses to agree? Again, the Constitution declares that the Congress, by a two-thirds vote of both Houses, may pass a law against the wishes or veto of the President. What is meant by a two-thirds vote? Does it mean two-thirds of all the elected members of each House or only two-thirds of those who choose to vote? The Constitution is silent on these questions. The national courts have had to answer them. The answers have given meaning to the Constitution.

THE PARTY SYSTEM HAS DEVELOPED THE CONSTITUTION

Fourth: The customs and practices of our political party system have helped to develop the Constitution. For example, the Constitution declares that there shall be a President, Senators, Congressmen, judges, and other officers. It tells by whom they shall be elected or appointed. But it says nothing about how persons shall be put forward or nominated for these positions.

The way in which names are put forward is just as much a part of our plan of government as if it were written into the Constitution. It is done by political parties in ways that have developed over the years. For example, if a representative is to be elected, then each party chooses the man it wants. The parties then submit to the voters the names of the men they have chosen. The voters choose the man they want to serve them as an officer.

Sometimes the officer is appointed, rather than elected. It is the custom of the President, for example, to appoint a man from his party unless the law says "no." It is the usual plan for others who appoint officers to follow the same practice.