ture of sensations, thoughts, and actions, which make up the transactions of our waking hours.

bulism, and other analogous conditions. fruitful in hallucinations, we pass on to abstinence, voluntary or enforced, to solitude and imprisonment, and to the complicated fatigues and privations of shipwreck. Judging by the examples cited by the author, these causes generally, but not invariably, produce hallucinations of an agreeable kind; in which respect they resemble the sensations described by those who have been rescued from drowning

When these curious compounds of illusion and delusion are brought about by very slight departures from ideal perfect health, or when they occur during the short transition from sound sleep to perfect wakefulness, and are not attended by any painful sensation of oppression, suffocation, sinking, or struggling, we call them dreams; but if that single straw-and hanging. The shipwrecked crew on berry, or that modicum of pie-crust which we were so imprudent as to blend with that otherwise moderate and wholesome supper, should happen to disagree with us, and the indigestion which reveals itself to our waking man by too familiar symptoms in stomach and brain, in mind and temper, plants a cat, a dog, or a demon upon our chests, raises us to giddy hights, plunges us to awful depths, sends us spinning like a top, or, more merciful, lends us wings to fly, or sevenleague boots to clear oceans at a leap, then our dreams become nightmares, and we have opened out for contemplation the myriads of hallucinations which grow out of uneasy bodily sensations misinterpreted by a mind robbed by sleep of all its usual standards of comparison.

the raft of the Medusa, deserted and starving, saw not only the vessels which they hoped for, but beautiful plantations and avenues, and landscapes leading to magnificent cities; and the miner shut up during fifteen days without food is comforted by celestial voices, as was Benvenuto Cellini in his prison, and, if our memory serves us faithfully, Silvio Pellico. Hallucinations of a less pleasurable kind. are not uncommon in aged persons, as the result of failing strength and languid circulation through the brain.

A

Following still an order of our own, but availing ourselves freely of our author's illustrative examples, we next arrive at those hallucinations which are caused by poisonous substances, such as the stramonium or thorn-apple, and the belladonna or deadly night-shade. case of suicidal poisoning by the first of these plants came under the author's notice. It occurred in the person of a musician and composer, who was first giddy, then as if drunk with wine, next entangled in a visionary ballet, then insensible, then again surrounded by hundreds of thieves and assassins with hideous faces and threatening gestures, which so frightened and excited him that when taken to the Hôtel Dieu he was confined as a furious madman. In three days he had completely recovered. A condensed account of the experiences of the English Opium Eater, with a singular history of an opium-eating Indian king, and a fact from Abercrombie illustrative of the power which opium administered for more legitimate reasons has of creating hallucinations; some interesting experiments with the haschisch, (a preparation made from the seeds of the Cannabis Indica, or Indian hemp ;) and cases of delirium tremens produced by the abuse of spirituous liquors, complete this division of the subject.

Of the varieties of nightmare, we have not space to speak at any length. Suffice it to state, that the sleeper sometimes betrays his trouble to the looker-on by restless tossings about, while at other times he appears to be in a sound sleep; that generally he wakes up in a paroxysm of terror struggling hopelessly for breath, for power of speech, or movement; and that, in some few instances, the unreal sensations are for a short space of time believed to be real, to the imminent danger of sleeping neighbors. For some interesting cases of nightmare repeated night after night, (in some instances at the same hour,) and of nightmare attacking a number of persons at the same time, and with the self-same hallucination, the reader is referred to M. Brierre de Boismont. Also for much curious information on dreams, somnambulism, ecstasy, and animal magnetism. We have marked some of the cases cited under the head of dreams as misplaced, but the cases are so interesting in themselves that our criticism is disarmed as we read them. Next in order to the causes of halluFrom dreams, nightmares, somnam-cinations which we have just been consid..

ering, we should place those disturbances of the circulation through the brain which attend diseases acute and chronic not primarily affecting the brain itself. All the forms of fever in every stage of their development, the intermittent fever commonly known as ague, inflammations of the more important organs of the body, seizures of the gout, the suppression of habitual discharges, and many other disorders and diseases which it is not our business to particularize, will come into this category. Affections of the brain itself, such as congestion and inflammation, and disorders of the nervous system -catalepsy, epilepsy, hysteria, hypochondriasis, St. Vitus's dance, and hydrophobia would constitute another class in our ascending series, which culminates in the hallucinations and illusions so generally present in persons of unsound mind.

The short and imperfect sketch and classification which we have now given of the causes of hallucinations, will serve to show the frequency of these strange disorders of the senses, or, to speak more correctly, of that wonderful physical organ of the mind which, sometimes by an effort of the will, but much more frequently without volition or consciousness of effort, converts its own operations into sensual impressions so vivid and so like reality, as to task all the powers of the sound mind to distinguish the real from the unreal, and ntterly to set at naught and confound the feeble or confused powers of minds smitten with unsoundness.

which are not the image of any idea deserving of the name, but involuntary creations of an utterly disordered instrument of thought? If unreal sensations, thoughts, and words may be born of involuntary actions of the brain, why not strange and eccentric acts of violence— such acts as madmen themselves attribute to beings other than themselves. The protestations of innocence which these poor madmen make sound strange indeed in the ears of those who have no experience of the insane, and have no conception of, or sympathy with, that aberration of the mind which combines in one awful discord hallucinations and illusions of the senses, delusions of the mind, language of frightful violence, obscenity, or impiety, misery unutterable, and excitement uncontrollable.

But we must not be tempted to wander further into this wide field of speculation. Want of space, and the fair claim of our author to have some distinct notice taken of those views to which he obviously attaches most importance, constrain us to notice the special case of those great men who have been subject to hallucinations, but whose memory he wishes to keep clear from all suspicion of unsoundness of mind. In a chapter devoted to the class of hallucinations coëxisting with sanity, the reader will recognize many a familiar history with which he first became accquainted in the popular works of Sir David Brewster or Sir Walter Scott, or in the more scientific treatises of Abercrombie, Bostock, Conolly, Paterson, Wigan, or Winslow; and he will be reminded of some of the most curious passages in the lives of such men as Byron, Samuel Johnson, Pope, Goethe, Lord Castlereagh, Benvenuto Cellini, Bernadotte, and the first Napoleon.

Many curious and grave questions suggest themselves to one who has succeeded in realizing this extensive prevalence of hallucinations. Seeing that, without any effort of the will, the brain, which ordinarily perceives the pictures painted on the eye, can create them out of nothing, we should, even in the absence The author tells us that he has purposeof experience, be led to the belief that the ly multiplied the illustrations contained in same organ of the mind, by a similar this chapter, and that he selected many involuntary action, might originate ideas of the cases because they relate to celeand opinions bearing to the usual process-brated persons, whom no one has ever es of thought and ratiocination the same relation that hallucination does to sensation; in a word, that delusions may spring up involuntarily in the mind, as we know that they do in the insane. But analogy would lead us even farther than this. If unreal sensations and unreal thoughts are possible as a consequence of involuntary workings of the organ of the mind, why not unreal words- words

thought of charging with insanity. "Some of them," he tells us, "have correctly regarded their hallucinations as the offspring of the imagination, or as arising from an unhealthy state of the body.. Others, led by their belief in the supernatural, by their vanity, or by the opinions of the period, or by superstitious feelings, have privately explained them in accordance with their own wishes; but their

mind that, in the case of the higher order of thinkers and actors, the hallucinations were in harmony with the universal belief of the times in which they lived. They were but representations on the organs of sense of ideas admitted as indisputably true by the society in which they lived and moved. When all the world believed in witchcraft, when the learned author of Vulgar Errors gave authoritative evidence in its favor, when Sir Matthew Hale barely doubted, and juries were quick to convict, the man who alleged that he saw an old lady of eccentric habits and uncertain temper borne through the air on a broomstick, would scarcely have been deemed insane.

Of the instances of hallucination coexisting with sanity, cited by M. Brierre de Boismont as occurring in great men, the most persistent is that which affected the first Napoleon. He had a brilliant star all to himself, which, according to his own assertion, never abandoned him, and which he saw, on all great occasions, com

conversation and their actions have given | impede. It ought also to be borne in no evidence of a disordered intellect; in some they may even have been the source of their great deeds. Frequently, however, the hallucination of the sound mind may be seen to glide into the hallucination of insanity, without its being possible always to point out the boundary which separates the one condition from the other, so difficult is it at all times to establish precise limits." We recognize and fully appreciate this difficulty; but we are not sure that we quite sympathize with the author in his evident desire to acquit great historical personages of the charge of unsoundness of mind, even where they have displayed not simply hallucinations of the senses, but delusions of the mind also. Pope is not to be set down as mad because he saw an arm come out of the wall; nor Dr. Johnson, because he heard his mother's voice call "Samuel" when he knew her to be far away; nor Goethe, because he one day saw the counterpart of himself coming towards him; nor Byron, because, as the effect of over-excitement of the brain, hemanding him to advance, and serving as occasionally fancied he was visited by a specter; nor Lord Castlereagh, because he twice saw the vision of the "Radiant Boy; nor St. Dunstan, Loyola, and Luther, because of their hallucinations; nor Joan of Arc, perhaps, because of the visions which alternately stimulated her patriotism, and were born of her enthusiasm. It is impossible, however, to read the account given of Benvenuto Cellini at page 62, without entertaining very grave doubts of the propriety of classing him with persons having "hallucinations coexistent with sanity." The remainder of the examples cited in this chapter do not appear to be misplaced. The hallucinations were only of occasional occurrence; they were dependent upon transitory causes; they did not exercise any permanent effect upon conduct; or they grew out of the excitement of great enterprises which they did not mar or

a sure augury and sign of success. The seeing of such a star, associated with such belief in its reality, is scarcely compatible with sanity, and the case is not improved by the adjuncts of unscrupulous appropriation of the property of others, insatiable ambition, diabolical cruelty, and inveterate falsehood. It would not be difficult, indeed, to discover in this extraordinary man that union of intellectual with moral unsoundness which makes up the history of so many acknowledged lunatics. But some allowance must be made for the times in which he lived, and the examples of craft and cruelty which he had placed before him in the early part of his career. So that M. Brierre de Boismont may be forgiven for including the name of Napoleon Bonaparte in his list of great men who preserved their sanity in spite of hallucinations.

From the Westminster Review.

GARIBALDI AND THE ITALIAN VOLUNTEERS.*

Ir has so often been repeated that "no | faith enable him to ripen into deeds the man is a prophet in his own country," that conception they had originally engendered. the dictum is generally accepted as a truth. For if a chief be indispensable to carry Yet all countries, and many periods of into execution a popular thought, all the history, show brilliant examples to the genius and devotedness one individual contrary. At different epochs men have can bring to the task of destroying a started up from among a people, and sud- moral or material bondage are utterly denly acquiring an almost unbounded in- thrown away, unless he find a nation to fluence, have raised a name, before un- uphold his idea. It is the conjunction of known, to the pinnacle of earthly glory. the two-of the leader and the peopleSuch characters are well worthy of our that have made the grand epochs of hisattention. We can not reflect on the tory and produced the greatest celebrities career of Mohammed or Washington, of of action. Luther or Rienzi, or of any other of the great religious or political agitators of the human mind, without seeking to discover by what means such men wound themselves into the hearts of their contemporaries, and what the secret springs the response of which gave them their almost magic power. We shall find, on inquiry, that their minds corresponded to a deepfelt and secret want of their time and nation, and that, however much they might otherwise differ from one another, they were all impressed with the truth and importance of what they deemed their mission. It would seem, moreover, that they were all the creations of their period and race before they became its guide. The character of each among them was formed in youth by the events of the times, his opinions being molded by those of his countrymen. The quality they all possessed in common was that of concentrating the aspirations, the passions, and even the prejudices of a whole nation. into a single focus, and thus intensifying them into action, as the lava of a longsleeping crater suddenly bursts forth into violent eruption. Then a people, recognizing in the claimant for popular sway a reflection of itself, purified and exalted by the long thought by which the process of assimilation must necessarily be completed, place in the leader a confidence which no other could inspire, and by their

Joseph Garibaldi is essentially such a man as we describe. He may be said to resume in himself the mind and heart of Italy. His character was formed by the events of her history as they rolled out before his eyes; from early youth upwards, he has partaken her vicissitudes, his opinions have passed through the suc cessive phases of her aspirations, often preceding the thought of his people, yet never in contradiction to it, and his sword has ever been the first to fly from the scabbard at the first symptom of a struggle, whether the enemy were the Pope or the Austrian. Thus formed by the action of Italian thought and deeds, he now in turn influences Italy, and at the present hour his name is more familiar at every cottage hearth than that of the soldierking or his potent ally; the reputation of the chief makes service in his bands more attractive than any other to the adventurous youth of all classes, and the approach of his little army inspired the Austrian soldiers with more dread than that of the numerous battalions of the allies.

Born at Nice, on the fourth of June, 1807, he had already entered the Sardinian navy when the Italian mind was roused from its long slumber. The inhabitants of the Ligurian coasts have been known for ages as bold mariners, and, to this day, they launch out to sea and brave the perils of the Atlantic in craft that appear but ill-deserving of their confidence. The habit of relying on their own resources

no scope for the development of his energies, he soon sought a wider field of action in South-America, where he entered the service of the Republic of Uruguay, then engaged in a struggle for independence with Rosas, the Dictator of Buenos Ayres.

The task intrusted to Garibaldi would have been enough to overwhelm one less able or less resolute- to him it proved but the training for greater deeds. Obliged to fight by sea and land alternately, he had to create a fleet by capturing the vessels of the enemy, and to organize a military force from whatever elements happened to present themselves. It was during these years of warfare that he raised his Italian legion, a part of which following him to Europe, became the nucleus of the bands that he long afterwards led to the defense of Rome, and several of the officers by whom he is still surrounded attached themselves to him at this period. Among these we may especially note Origoni, then his second in command, and his lieutenant at sea, afterwards the companion of his wanderings, and his fellow-laborer on his Sardinian farm, lastly, chief of the staff of his little army.

has fostered in them a rough spirit of in- | military qualities as the most martial of dependence and a love of adventure, un- European nations. For a while, Garirivaled in the rest of the Peninsula. baldi passed over to Tunis, but finding Garibaldi, the son of an old sea-captain, was plentifully endowed. with the peculi arities of his race. The constant sight of the sea, and the early habit of struggling with the elements, doubtless contributed to form his intense and passionate love of liberty; and often confined to Genoa by the duties of his service, he was naturally predisposed to adopt the doctrines of Mazzini-himself a Genoese-who at that time first appeared on the stage of Italian politics. Mazzini was not then what he has become since. He had just proclaimed that idea of Italian unity, which had seemed a fair but marble statue since the days of Machiavelli and Dante, to be a living object of desire; his countrymen were struck with admiration at the boldness of his projects, and fascinated by the eloquence with which he defended them; and the means he pointed out for attainment of the ultimate aim seemed the only ones possible, while every sovereign of the Peninsula was closely leagued with Austria and bent in lowly submission before the successor of St. Peter. Mazzini's thoughts were then in harmony with those of his nation, other and more practical men had not as yet attempted the realization of his idea, solitary and continual brooding had not deadened him to all but the suggestions of his own selfadoring and mystical mind, nor had exile dug a deep abyss between his highlycolored ideal and the practical aspirations of his countrymen. It was there fore natural that Garibaldi, already an ardent devotee of Italian liberty, should readily enter into schemes the practicability of which had not yet been put to

the test.

The first attempt at the regeneration of Italy by means of the revolution was crushed in the bud, Mazzini and his chief partisans were forced to seek safety in flight, and Garibaldi, whose offense was rendered the more heinous by his rank in the Sardinian navy, soon found himself an exile at Marseilles. His character was too frank and energetic for him to partake the mole-like existence of his leader; conspiracy, however noble its object, was no occupation for one who is emphatically the soldier of Italy, and whose object through life has been to prove that his countrymen are as well endowed with all

It would be tedious to trace, one by one, the series of actions by which Garibaldi compelled Rosas finally to acknowledge the independence of Uruguay, a concession which paved the way to his own downfall. It is more interesting for us to mark the effects of these actions on Garibaldi himself and on the minds of his followers. Often defeated, sometimes apparently on the verge of destruction, he never despaired, never gave in. Gradually he acquired all the qualifications of a consummate guerrilla leader. Practice taught him how to harass and confound a numerically superior enemy by sudden marches and unexpected attacks, in which the bayonet played a chief part, as the weapon of most deadly effect in the hands of resolute and enthusiastic men; he learned how to take advantage of every dell and mound, and how to profit by the slightest error of his adversary. Deep study of the science of war has since added to his qualifications as a great leader, and shown him how to improve stratagem by art; but the talent he above all pos