SECTION V. HISTORY. CHALDEA. Next to China, Chaldea may be considered as entitled to the precedence in the history of nations. It was here, as we have seen, that, to say the least, the principal portion of the more immediate descendants of Noah fixed their abode before the Dispersion. It was here that the famed Babel was erected, and monarchy began. Here it was that the mighty Nimrod figured, by founding the first Post-diluvian cities, and organizing an empire which ultimately became, and continued for a season, the mistress of the world. Well may this country, then, claim priority, on the historic page, to all others, with the single exception already made. In the case of Chaldea, we are able to trace its history, in the clearest manner, to its origin. It is not, like that of some countries, enveloped in the mists of fable. We are made acquainted with its first inhabitants, its first monarch, and its earliest events; which furnish us a clue to its entire history, and to that of many other nations. Strike from the annals of the world the infantile period of Chaldean history, and you break a most important link in the great historical chain of nations, and involve the story of our race in the utmost confusion conceivable. The historian may therefore well congratulate himself, that he is so thoroughly furnished with the materials necessary to the clear elucidation of so important a period. Babylon, the capital of Chaldea, was originally denominated Babel. And it is observable, that it was not a tower alone, but a city also, which men built prior to the Confusion. "Go to," said they, "let us build us a city and a tower whose top may reach unto heaven.” Gen. xi. 4. This city, we say, which was afterwards denominated Babylon, was at first called Babel. After the Dispersion, it would seem that Nimrod, extending his views of empire beyond the limits of this city, founded three other cities, viz. Erech, Accad, and Calneh, all in the land of Shinar; which cities, it is supposed, he governed by deputies. Cush, his father, is thought to have been deputy or governor at Erech.* Nimrod's empire probably extended no further than the province of Babylonia. According to some, he commenced his reign A. M. 1758, but we are inclined to think it was not so early; for this is fifty years earlier than there is good reason for believing that the building of Babel began. Allowing, therefore, that his empire commenced with the founding of Babel, it was not, according to the calculation just made, till A. M. 1807. The argument for an earlier date derived from the circumstance that Peleg, who received his name from the fact that in his days the earth was divided, was born in 1757, will appear of very little weight when it is considered, that various individuals in olden times received their names in allusion to events future at the time of their birth. Noah is an example of the kind. Indeed, in the very case of Peleg himself, we are led to the conclusion that he was named on the same consideration. In his days, not at his birth, was the earth divided. Nimrod is supposed to have died A. M. 1905. If, therefore, it be admitted that his kingdom began A. M. 1807, his reign amounted to ninety-eight years. On the other supposition, he must have reigned one hundred and forty-eight years. Some writers make Belus and Nimrod the same; while others make them different individuals, and say that Belus was Nimrod's successor. Belus, like Nimrod, seems to have been selected by the people as their sovereign on account of his pre-eminent talents. According to Pliny, he was the inventor of the Chaldean astronomy.* He was of a studious turn, and sought the intellectual improvement of his people. He is said to have reigned sixty years, and to have died, A. M. 1966. Sometime after the death of Belus, Ninus, the king of Assyria, invaded Babylonia, and deposed its monarch, Nabonius, thereby rendering it a mere province of the Assyrian empire, thus merging the two king doms in one. to Before we proceed further, we will turn our attention ASSYRIA. The founder of this empire, as we have heretofore seen, was Asshur, a son of Shem, who emigrated from Babylonia for that purpose. He pursued a course very similar to that of Nimrod in establishing his empire. First he built Nineveh, the capital. Then he built three other cities, viz. Rehoboth, Resen, and Calah; governing them no doubt by deputies, after the manner of Nimrod. He is supposed by some to have died about the same time as Nimrod, though we cannot conceive how this supposition can be reconciled with the date of the events of those times, unless Belus and Nimrod were the same. The successor of Asshur was Ninus, the conqueror of Babylonia, whom we mentioned a little back. He was possessed of an ambitious spirit, and was the first warrior and conqueror noted on the historic page.† His first conquest was that of Babylonia, his mother country, whence emigrated the first settlers of Assyria. This conquest he easily effected, the Babylonians having till then been occupied in cultivating the arts of peace. Diodorus Siculust makes particular mention of this conquest. "Ninus, the king of Assyria," says he, "assisted by a king of the Arabians, invaded the Babylonians with a powerful army. The present Babylon was not then built, but there were in the country of Babylonia other cities of figure. He easily reduced these his neighbours, who had no great skill in war, and laid them under tribute." And thus, about 120 years after the founding of the Assyrian colony by Asshur, they became sufficiently powerful to subdue the land of their ancestors. The success of Ninus in his first attempt inspired him with increased confidence in his own strength, and prompted him onward to more extensive conquests. In a few years, he overran many of the infant states of Asia. The subjugation of one nation led him on to that of another; and thus went he on from conquest to conquest, till he reached the far distant regions of Bactria, the country where we have supposed those who remained with Noah first to have settled, and which, as might be expected from this circumstance, was more populous and formidable than those countries which were settled subsequently, and which Ninus had previously overcome. Here he met with serious opposition-far more so than he had before realized. After several ineffectual attempts upon the capital, he at length, by means of the contrivance and conduct of Semiramis, wife of Menon, a captain in his army, succeeded in its capture. Charmed with her bravery and skill, he took her from her husband, and made her his queen, offering him his own daughter in her stead. According to others, the husband of Semiramis destroyed himself, from fear or jealousy of Ninus, before the latter married her. By Semiramis, Ninus had a son named Ninyas. Ninus reigned 52 years, and is computed to have died A. M. 2017. On the death of Ninus, Semiramis assumed the reins of government. She removed the seat of empire to Babylon, which now again became the chief of cities, and the capital of the world. This city she strengthened, enlarged, and embellished at a vast expense. It is asserted that in making these improvements, she employed the labours of 2,000,000 men-a number, however, altogether incredible, considering the early period in which she lived, and the paucity of mankind in those days. And yet, when we consider her great resources; when we reflect that nations were subservient to her beck, and that she swayed the sceptre of a large portion of the inhabited earth; we are led at once to the conclusion, that she had a vast multitude employed in the work under consideration. Having completed this magnificent undertaking, and rendered Babylon, at this early period, the "glory of kingdoms," she raised a powerful army, and after making some minor conquests, proceeded to the East, for the purpose of completing what her husband had begun the subjugation of that part of the world. But contrary to her expectations, she found the people in that quarter too powerful for her arms; and after a long and disastrous war, she was compelled to relinquish her enterprise, and to witness the prostration of all her high hopes in the dust. Some authors assert that she was slain on the banks of the Indus; but according to others, she returned in disgrace to Babylon, and resigned her crown to her son Ninyas, after a reign of 42 years; shortly after which she died.* Ninyas her successor was very unlike his parents. He indulged in no ambitious schemes of conquest, but devoted his attention to the welfare of his people, and to the proper regulation of the extensive empire whose destinies he was called to wield. It was on account of this pacific temperament of Ninyas, that some historians have stigmatized him with effeminacy and imbecility. But well had it been for mankind, had there been more of such effeminacy and imbecility, and less of turbulence and ambition, in the management of the political concerns of nations. MYTHOLOGY. THE MUSES. (Concluded.) "Bahusius, a modern poet, has comprised the names of all the muses in a distich; that is, he has made nine Muses stand, which is something strange, but upon eleven feet. Perhaps you will remember their names better, when they are thus joined together in two verses: Calliope, Polymneia, Erato, Clio, atque Thalia, "The most remarkable of the names which are common to them all are: Heliconide, or Heliconiades, from the mountain Helicon, in Boeotia. Parnassides, from the mountain Parnassus, in Phocis, which has • Diodorus Siculus, lib. ii. two heads, where if any person slept, he presently became a poet. It was anciently called Larnassus, from Larnace, the ark of Deucalion, which rested here, and was named Parnassus after the flood, from an inhabitant of this mountain, so called. Citherides, or Citheriades, from the mountain Citheron, where they dwelt. Aonides, from the country Aonia. Pierides, or Pieriæ, from the mountain Pierus, or Pieria, in Thrace; or from the daughters of Pierius and Annippe, who daring contend with the Muses were changed into pies. Pegasides and Hippocrenides, from the famous fountain Helicon, which by the Greeks is called Hippocrene, and by the Latins, Caballinus, both which words signify the horse's fountain: it was also named Pegasus, the winged horse, which, by striking a stone in this place with his foot, opened the fountain, and the waters became vocal. Aganippides, or Aganippeæ, from the fountain Castalius, at the foot of Parnassus. "Some write, that there were but three in the beginning; because sound, out of which all singing is formed, is naturally three-fold; either made by the voice alone, or by blowing, as in pipes, or by striking, as in eitherns or drums. Or it may be, because there are three tones of the voice or other instruments, the bass, the tenor, and the treble. Or lastly, because all the sciences are distributed into three general parts, philosophy, rhetoric, and mathematics; and each of these parts is subdivided into three other parts; philosophy into logic, ethics, and physics; rhetoric into the demonstrative, deliberative, and judicial kind; mathematics into music, geometry, and arithmetic and hence it came to pass, that they reckoned not only Three Muses, but Nine. "Others give a different reason why they are Nine. When the citizens of Sicyon appointed three skilful artificers to make the statues of the Three Muses, promising to choose those three statues out of the nine which they liked best, they were all so well made that they could not tell which to prefer; so that they bought them all, and placed them in the temples; and Hesiod afterwards assigned to them the names mentioned above. "Some affirm that they were virgins, and others deny it, who reckon up their children. Let no person, however, despise the Muses, unless he design to bring destruction upon himself by the example of Thamyras or Thamyris; who, being conceited of his beauty and skill in singing, presumed to challenge the Muses to sing, upon condition that if he was overcome, they should punish him as they pleased. And after he was overcome, he was deprived at once both of his harp and his eyes." THE GRACES. "The Graces were three beautiful females, daughters of Venus, and often attendant upon her. They were supposed to be beautiful and amiable, and to represent the sweetness, civility, and purity which are proper to delicate, elegant, and accomplished persons. The "The names of the Graces were Álgaia, Thalia, and Euphrosyne; they are usually represented in a group, naked and adorned with flowers on their heads. Graces, properly Charities or Virtues, were represented hand in hand, to show that virtues, though different, belong to each other, and they are not found single but united. They were beautiful, to signify that kind affections and good actions are pleasing and winning. They were exhibited unadorned and unclothed, because gentleness of manners and kindness of heart are sufficient without disguise or art to gain good will. Some assert that they were the daughters of Jupiter Antimachus says they were born of Sol and Ægla. and Eurynome or Eunomia, the daughter of Oceanus. Others think they were daughters of Eteocles, and were therefore called Eteoclea. Their three names, as individuals, viz. Aglaia, Thalia, and Euphrosyne, signify respectively, the Shining, the Flourishing, the CAPTAIN FRANKLIN'S SECOND JOURNEY. Although Captains Parry and Franklin both left England with their respective expeditions about the same period in the year 1819, yet the former of these gentlemen returned considerably the earlier, and had already been gone nearly eighteen months on a second enterprise, when the other arrived from the first. Scarcely a year had, however, elapsed before Captain Parry returned, in the autumn of 1823, from this second voyage, in which he had vainly endeavoured to penetrate the icy channel named the Strait of the Fury and Hecla. Towards the close of the same year, the Government made known its intention of sending that active navigator to engage in a third attempt; and then Captain Franklin laid before them a plan for another co-operative expedition over land to e shores of the Polar Sea, for the conduct of which he offered his own services. The proposal was accepted, and every arrangement made for carrying it into immediate effect. Dr. Richardson solicited permission again to accompany his friend, which was readily accorded; and the party was completed by the appointment of their old fellow-traveller, Lieutenant Back, with Mr. Kendall, Mr. Drummond as assistant botanist, and four marines. Captain Franklin was directed, by his instructions, to winter at the Great Bear Lake, and thence proceed, in the following spring, down the Mackenzie River, (which was explored by the traveller of that name in 1789.) On reaching its mouth, the expedition was to separate into two parties; the one to trace the coast to the westward, and the other to survey it to the eastward, as far as the Coppermine River. haps fatal encounter. Having extricated themselves from this imminent peril, they continued their course, greatly impeded, however, by the unfavourable state of the atmosphere. The low and swampy land that here extends between the northern termination of the rocky mountains and the sea coast, seems to be productive of a constant fog, frequently so dense as to contract the range of view to within a few yards. Nevertheless, by the 16th of August they had succeeded in reaching the half-way point between Mackenzie River and Icy Cape, (the furthest point to which the north-western coast of America had been traced from Behring's Strait;) but the symptoms of approaching winter here became so unequivocal, that they were compelled to return, though with great reluctance. Unfortunately, Captain Franklin did not know that at this moment the barge of the ship, which had been sent to await his arrival in Behring's Strait, was actually within 160 miles of the spot which he had himself reached; had he known it, "no difficulties, dangers, or discouraging circumstances," to use his own expression, would have prevailed on him to return. Under the existing circumstances he was obliged to do so, and, on the 21st of September, this western expedition reached Fort Franklin, where they found the eastern branch returned, before them. The navigation which Dr. Richardson had to perform was almost wholly unobstructed; and between the 4th of July and the 8th of August, he succeeded in accomplishing the coast voyage of 902 miles, between the mouths of the Mackenzie and Coppermine Rivers. He returned with his party to Fort Franklin on the 1st of September, and, after a lapse of nearly three weeks, was joined by the western branch, as we have before related. In the following year, the two parties set out in company for England, which they reached in the autumn of 1827. This second expedition of Captain Franklin, though destitute of that tragic interest which his first excited, may be regarded as more important in its geographical results. The 6 degrees of longitude, for which the northern shores of America had been explored in the former enterprise, were now extended to a line exceeding 39 degrees in length, and approaching on the one side to within 160 miles of the extreme known north-western point of that continent, and on the other to within 400 miles of the supposed extreme north eastern point. VOYAGE OF CAPTAIN BEECHEY. The necessary boats and stores were forwarded in the summer of 1824 to York Factory, and thence despatched by the ordinary river-navigation towards the Great Bear Lake. The officers left England early in 1825, and proceeding by the more circuitous but more convenient route of New York and Canada through Lake Huron, overtook the boats on the Methye River in the summer of the same year. By the 5th of Au- When the simultaneous expeditions of Captains gust, the whole party had reached the Great Bear Lake Parry and Franklin were undertaken in 1824, it apRiver, which flows from the lake of that name into peared to those with whom they originated, to be althe Mackenzie River; and on its banks Captain most impossible that either of them, even in the event Franklin resolved to take up his winter-quarters. of success, could reach the open sea in Behring's They quickly began to build a habitation and store, Strait, without being nearly, if not wholly, exhausted which they afterwards named from their respected of resources and provisions, and it was quite certain commander; and while the most skilful were thus en- that Captain Franklin's party would be entirely destigaged, he himself proceeded down the Great Bear tute of the means of conveyance to Europe. AccordLake and Mackenzie Rivers, in order to take a viewingly, to obviate these anticipated difficulties, His Maof the Polar Sea, and obtain information which would jesty's Government determined upon sending a ship to probably serve to guide in some degree his operations that spot, to await the arrival of the two expeditions. the following year. In this excursion he was eminent- The Blossom sloop was selected for this purpose, and ly successful; and he rejoined his companions on the the command of her given to Captain F. W. Beechey, 5th of September. who had already distinguished himself in the preceeding northern voyages. Before the departure of Captain Franklin, he arranged with Captain Beechey the plan of their joint operations. Kotzebue Inlet was agreed upon as the place of rendezvous, where Captain Beechey was to remain during the summer months of 1826 and 1827. The winter was passed in the usual manner; and with the return of spring the party began to prepare for their expedition. On the 29th of June they quitted Fort Franklin, descended the Mackenzie, and, on the 4th of July, separated into the two branches which were to pursue different directions, following the two channels into which the stream here divided. Captain Franklin conducted the western party, and Dr. Richardson the eastern. The former had scarcely reached the sea, when they fell in with a large number of Esquimaux, with whom, but for their own forbearance, they would have been involved in a bloody, and per The Blossom sailed from England on May 19th, 1825; and passing Behring's Strait, entered Kotzebue Sound early in the morning of the 22nd of September The land was much obscured by a thick fog, which, however, cleared off soon afterwards, and discovered to their astonished view a deep inlet in the northern shore, that had escaped the observation of Captain Kotzebue. Captain Beechey named it Hotham Inlet, and sent the barge to examine it, intending to proceed with the ship further into the sound, as far as Chamisso Island, the appointed place of rendezvous. The unfavourable state of the wind prevented him from advancing for nearly two days. During his detention, a party of the natives approached the ship, in their baidars, bringing with them various articles of skin and fish, which they were desirous of changing for other commodities. The baidars are a species of boat, similar in construction to the Esquimaux oomiaks (or woman hoats) of Hudson's Bay. "They consist," says Captain Beechey," of a frame made from drift wood, covered with the skins of walrusses strained over it, and are capable of being tightened at any time by a lacing on the inside of the gunwale; the frame and benches for the rowers are fastened with thongs, by which the boat is rendered both light and pliable; the skin, when soaked with water, is translucent; and a stranger placing his foot upon the flat yielding surface at the bottom of the boat, fancies it a frail security; but it is very safe and durable, especially when kept well greased." Each of these boats now contained from ten to thirteen men, who all exhibited the custom, which was afterwards found to be general along this part of the American coast, of wearing ornaments in their under lip. These consisted of pieces of ivory, stone, or glass, formed with a double head, like a sleeve-button, one part of which is thrust through a hole bored in the under lip. The incision is made when about the age of puberty, and is at first about the size of a quill; as they grow older, the natives enlarge the orifice, and increase the size of the ornament accordingly, that it may hold its place. In adults, this orifice is about half an inch in diameter, and will, if required, distend to three quarters of an inch. The people themselves possessed all the characteristic features of the Esquimaux ;-large, fat, round faces, high cheek bones, small hazel eyes, eyebrows slanting like the Chinese, and wide mouths. The engraving of them below is from Captain Beechey. They were strictly honest; and in this respect offer rather a contrast to others of their race, whom Captain Beechey subsequently visited. bowl of coagulated blood, shared a similar fate; and even "the raw flesh of the narwhal, nicely cut into lumps, with an equal distribution of black and white fat," displayed its tempting charms in vain. One gentleman only, and he to oblige the Captain, ventured to taste one of the motley mixtures, but at the expense of his appetite for the rest of the day. WESTERN ESQUIMAUX OF HOTHAM INLET, IN THEIR BAIDARS. Red and blue beads, buttons, knives, and hatchets, were in general request, and readily induced them to sell their ordinary commodities; but tawac, as they called our tobacco, was the great object of the men's desires, and an offer of this made them part with even their bows and arrows, which they had refused to barter for the usual articles of exchange. Their habits seemed to be very filthy; but they were hospitable, though after their own fashion. Whenever Captain Beechey visited them, he was received in the most friendly manner; and frequently, to use his own expression, "underwent the full delights of an Esquimaux salutation." A contact of noses, or a smoothing of the visiters' faces with hands, which had been previously licked and applied to their own, was the usual mode of reception; and sometimes, as a most especial mark of regard, a warm embrace and hug supplied the place of this less distinguished favour. The choicest delicacies which their means could afford, were then offered; but the guests, with a squeamishness that excited at once the surprise and ridicule of their less crupulous hosts, could never be prevailed upon to accept the dainty fare. Bowls of blubber and walrus fiesh, dishes of whortleberries mashed up with sorrel and rancid train-oil, were left untouched by our fastidious countrymen; the entrails of a fine seal, and a It was not till the morning of the 25th of July, that Captain Beechey reached Chamisso Island, only five days later than had been agreed upon by Captain Franklin and himself. No traces of the latter gentlemen were yet to be seen; and Captain Beechey therefore proceeded, according to the arrangement, to survey the coast further to the northward, towards the Arctic Sea. At the same time, in order that Captain Franklin might not want provisions, in the event of his missing the ship along the coast, and arriving at the island in her absence, a tight barrel of flour was buried in the most unfrequented spot in its vicinity, and directions for finding it were deposited in a bottle, to which attention was directed by writing upon the cliffs with white paint. By the middle of August he reached Icy Cape, where he found the sea quite open, and felt the greatest desire to advance. His instructions were, however, positive, to avoid the chance of being beset with his ship in the ice; and he was obliged therefore to con tent himself with despatching the barge to prosecute | to Macao, where he procured sufficient stores to enathe further search, while he returned to Kotzebue Sound. ble him to prosecute the voyage. The ship left Macao The barge proceeding to the north-eastward succeeded on the 30th of April, 1827, and after visiting the great in exploring the line of the coast as far as point Bar- Loo Choo, passed through Behring's Strait, and reachrow, 126 miles beyond Icy Cape; and the crew hav- ed the rendezvous this time by the 5th of August; still ing erected a post for Captain Franklin returned to there was no trace of Franklin, and they accordingly the ship. stood forward to the northward. The unfavourable Captain Beechey remained within the Blossom at stage of the ice prevented them from proceeding so far Chamisso Island, occupied in surveying the coast and as they had gone the former year; and after the loss harbours of Kotzebue Sound, until the approach of of their barge, and a narrow escape of wreck on the winter rendered it necessary for him to hasten his de- part of the ship, they were compelled, by the early setparture. During his stay, he made several excursions, ting in of the winter, to take a final leave of the Polar and procured many interesting fossil remains. He Sea, and retrace their course to England, which they had also an opportunity of remarking the habits and reached on the 8th of September, 1828, after an absence peculiarities of the natives, or western Esquimaux, as of three years and a half, and a voyage of 73,000 they are called, in contradistinction to their eastern miles. brethren. Their deserted huts were frequently found in many places, and traces of a recent residence were often visible. He particularly notices their burialplaces, and the mode which they have of disposing of their dead. The corpse is deposited, with the head to the westward, in a sort of coffin formed of loose planks, and placed upon a platform of drift-wood, which is sometimes raised to the height of two feet. A double tent of spars of drift-wood, put together closely, is erected over this as a covering to secure the body from the depredations of foxes and wolves: but the rapacity of those animals succeeds before long in breaking through this feeble protection. The body is generally dressed in a frock made of eider-duck skins, and covered with hides of deer or sea-horse. The coffin and planks are sometimes omitted, and the corpse then rests simply on the drift-wood. We give on the opposite column a representation of one of these graves. The Blossom quitted the sound on the 14th of October, and having repassed Behring's Strait, stood to the southward, and reached the harbour of Francisco, in California, on the eighth of November. Here Captain Beechey had intended to recruit his supplies; but the inadequacy of the means which it afforded compelled him to proceed first to the Sandwich Islands, and thence WESTERN ESQUIMAUX GRAVE. |