authority to attend to their own local affairs and to do business with one another they stand as equals.

In spite of the differences among the 48 States, they all have governments which are somewhat alike in organization.

IN SOME WAYS THE GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONS OF THE CITIES, THE STATES, AND THE NATION ARE ALIKE

There are three general branches of the governments of our cities, States, and Nation. These are the legislative branch (to make the laws), the executive branch (to enforce the laws), and the judicial branch (to explain and apply the laws). Study Figure 40 and you will see how this division of authority runs through the government organization of the Nation, the States, and the cities.

THE LAWMAKING BRANCH OF THE STATE GOVERNMENT THE LEGISLATURE

The lawmaking branch of the State government is made up of two separate groups in every State except Nebraska. Each group can change or defeat a proposed law which the other group has passed.

The State lawmaking body is generally called the State Legislature or Assembly. It is divided into two groups or houses, one usually called the Senate and the other the House of Representatives. Members of the Senate are usually called Senators, while members of the House are known as Representatives or Assemblymen. In most cases the House of Representatives is much larger than the Senate.

Although the county is usually the basis of representation in both Senate and House, Senators in some States are elected from districts formed by grouping a number of counties together or by dividing a large and populous county into two or more districts. In most States the Senators serve 4 years and Representatives 2 years, although in a few States both serve 2 years, and in still others 4 years.

HOW THE ORGANIZATION OF GOVERNMENT IN CITIES, STATES, AND THE

NATION IS MUCH ALIKE

Figure 40

How the Organization of Government in Cities, States, and the Nation is Much Alike

In most States the two houses meet in the State capital for a legislative session every 2 years. In a few States they meet every year, and in Alabama they meet only once in every 4 years. They may, however, be called into special session by the governor of the State whenever he considers it necessary.

How Are the State Lawmakers Chosen?

The State is divided into districts and the people of each district have the right to elect one State senator and one or more representatives. It is nearly always required that candidates for these offices shall live for at least 1 year in their districts before they can qualify for election. The State government often has great difficulty in dividing the State into districts so fairly that both city and country people get equal representation in the State legislature.

How Does the State Legislature Operate To Make State Laws?

In the 47 States which have legislatures divided into two houses, laws are made in the same general way.

Any member of either house of the legislature may bring forward a proposal (called a bill) which he wishes to have enacted into a law. After the bill is introduced in either house it is turned over to a committee of that house for study.

Most of the business of the State legislature is carried on by committees. In considering important bills the committees usually hold public hearings. At these hearings they listen to persons favoring or opposing the bill, who may explain their reasons and urge the house to pass it or not to pass it. If the committee decides that the bill should become a law, it makes a report to the house and tells exactly what good this legislation is expected to do and why it should pass. In the case of many bills, however, the committee to which they are sent does not approve or cannot agree, and so makes no report. Such bills fail to get any consideration from the full membership of the legislature, unless the legislators favoring them can persuade a

majority of the house to vote to consider them without a committee report.

After a committee has made a favorable report on a bill, there is usually some debate on the "floor" of the house before the bill is voted upon. Members may want to tell how good or bad they think it is. When the vote is taken, a majority of those voting must show themselves favorable or the bill is beaten. The committee may make changes (called amendments), and even after the committee has recommended the bill individual members of the house may propose amendments to be voted on by their fellow members.

After a bill is voted on favorably by either house it is sent to the other house. Here it gets much the same treatment. It is referred to a committee for study and a report. If it is sent back with a favorable report, it is usually the subject of a debate in the second house before it comes to a vote. If the bill is changed by the second house, it is then sent to a committee made up of members of both houses, called a "conference committee." It may be rewritten or adjusted by the conference committee to include the changes which the committee believes will be satisfactory to both houses. If this is done successfully, the bill is then voted on favorably by both houses. It is then sent to the governor of the State. If he signs it the bill becomes a law.

In every State except North Carolina, the governor may disapprove (veto) a bill if he does not like it. If he vetoes it, or refuses to sign it, he can ordinarily prevent it from becoming a law. However, the legislators have a right to vote on the bill again to decide whether it shall become a law without the governor's approval. In some States a majority of the legislators in each house can pass a law in spite of the governor's veto. In other States a two-thirds vote of the members of each house is required. What Laws Does the State Legislature Make?

From your study of the last chapter, which describes the services that a State may do for its people, you can judge

what kinds of laws the State legislature is likely to make. In general, State laws cover the special needs and purposes of the people of the State. They deal with such matters as marriage, divorce, education, public health, the protection of the lives and property of citizens, and the care of the poor and needy. They provide for police protection and for the punishment of crime. They tell when and how State elections shall be held and how State taxes shall be assessed and collected.

You have already learned that the State legislature does not have authority to pass any law which conflicts with the National Constitution, the laws of Congress, or our treaties with foreign countries.

THE LAW-ENFORCING BRANCH OF THE STATE GOVERNMENT-THE EXECUTIVE

The executive branch of the State government includes the governor and other important officers.

The Governor is the Chief Executive Officer of the State

He is elected by the people of the State. In some States his term of office is 2 years, in others 4 years.

The powers of the governor are outlined in the State constitution. He may help to make laws by advising the legislature about new laws which he thinks are needed. He may call the legislature to special meetings (sessions) to consider such laws. He appoints members of a large number of boards and commissions; in some States his principal appointments must be approved by the State senate. He is the head of the National Guard of his State and may use it to keep order when he thinks there is danger of riot and bloodshed. He may pardon persons who have been convicted of crimes by the State courts. He may also shorten the sentences of such criminals.

If a governor dies or is removed from office, the State law usually provides that his place shall be taken by the lieutenant governor. The lieutenant governor usually acts as the presiding officer of the Senate.