limited list of powers and reserved all the rest for the States and the people.

So we have today a dual (or double) system of government, with the States (like the cities, as we explained in the last chapter) doing more and more services for the people, as the problems of people's own lives grow more and more complex. You will see in later chapters, however, that the Federal Government, although acting only in matters too broad for single States to handle, still has plenty of important services to perform for the Nation and its people.

EACH STATE HAS A CONSTITUTION TO GUIDE IT

You will remember that the first 13 of these constitutions are older than the Federal Constitution, and that the Fathers of the Constitution were very careful not to take away from the States very many rights which their own constitutions claimed for them. The States are simply required to have a republican form of government and not to adopt laws which contradict or violate the Constitution, laws, and treaties of the United States. When new States are admitted to statehood, as we explained in chapter 9, they have to show their proposed constitutions to the Congress and get its approval. But in general the objectives and services of the State governments are closely related to the life, comfort, and welfare of each individual citizen.

WHAT DO WE FIND IN THE STATE CONSTITUTIONS?

In most State constitutions we will find the following: 1. A statement of the objectives of the State government (usually found in a preamble).

2. A statement of the rights of the people living in the State (often called a bill of rights).

3. A general plan to show how the State government must be organized.

4. A statement about crimes and their punishment in the State.

5. Rules for the cities, counties, townships, and villages in the State.

6. General conditions under which public utilities, business corporations, State banks, charitable institutions and other groups may operate in the State.

7. A section outlining the ways in which the State constitution may be amended.

Each of the State constitutions provides that the final authority in the State belongs to the people. Each of them tells the objectives of the people in setting up their government. Each outlines an organization for the State government. Each provides for contacts between State government groups and many other groups organized under the authority of the State. And each State constitution announces certain principles and standards which the people of the State have adopted as the foundation of their government.

GENERAL OBJECTIVES OF OUR STATE GOVERNMENTS

State governments have many objectives. The most general objective of each State government is to provide for peace and order in the State, and to cooperate with other units of government for this and other purposes. The State must protect its citizens in the rights which belong to them, but it must prevent anybody from using these rights in a way which will harm others unjustly. For example, a person has a right to own property, but on that property he must not carry on any business which does harm to other people or is forbidden by the State.

SERVICES PERFORMED BY OUR STATE GOVERNMENTS

In order to carry out this general objective, our State governments do many services for the people. What are some of them? Among other things the State helps to1. Guard the health of its people.

2. Provide for the education of its people.
3. Protect the lives and property of its people.
4. Improve transportation within its borders.
5. Care for those in need of public aid.

6. Protect the forests of the State, its mineral deposits, and the soil of its farms.

7. Regulate many kinds of business in the State.

8. Improve the living and working conditions of its people in many other ways.

A STATE MAY HELP IN GUARDING THE HEALTH OF ITS PEOPLE

In all of the 48 States we find some group of government officials helping to protect the health of the people. What do they do? Under the authority of the State constitution and State laws, they arrange for the examination of doctors, nurses, druggists, and others who help to fight disease and ill health; then, if they are satisfied, they issue licenses which authorize these applicants to do their work. The State laws usually provide that persons who make and sell medicines, persons who make a business of nursing the sick, and persons who practice any form of curing disease or ill health by medicine or surgery must have official permission to practice their calling in the State.

The States also maintain hospitals for the sick and in

sane.

State officials carefully examine many kinds of food and drugs to find out whether they are safe for the people to use. Most States forbid the sale of harmful drugs and impure or spoiled food. In many other ways they try to prevent diseases among their people. They require regular health examinations for school children. States also have laws which require that dairy cattle must be inspected and, when found to have tuberculosis or other dangerous diseases, must be destroyed.

A STATE MAY PROVIDE FOR THE EDUCATION OF ITS PEOPLE

The State governments do a great many things to help their people get a good education. They provide State

schools where everything is paid out of tax money. Our system of public schools supported by tax money is an important part of the foundation of our American way of living. The States may make laws to compel children to attend school.

State officials often have the duty of deciding what courses of study shall be given in the various grades of the public schools, and are even required in many cases to decide what textbooks shall be used. They sometimes have the power to allot State funds to poor communities which cannot themselves raise enough money to have good schools. They build and operate schools and colleges in which teachers are trained. Most States maintain a State university and other State colleges. Sometimes the States provide special schools or classes where housewives can learn home management, where workmen can learn trades and crafts, and where farmers can learn scientific farming. They also often have experiment stations where experts make many kinds of tests to find better ways of educating and protecting the people. You will want to study the educational system of your State and learn all the different kinds of schools which it provides.

IT IS THE DUTY OF A STATE TO PROTECT THE LIVES AND PROPERTY OF ITS CITIZENS

As you have learned, police officers, sheriffs, and constables have the duty of keeping order, preventing crime, and arresting criminals. The State maintains groups of trained soldiers, known as the militia or National Guard, who may be called upon for help when the local officials need it. The governor of the State is the commander of the National Guard. He may send these soldiers to any part of the State when he thinks that local officials are not able to keep peace and order there. This State military organization offers to the people an additional protection against violence and helps to protect life and property. Some States have also established a State police force to

maintain order on the highways and elsewhere and to offer immediate help in time of need.

A STATE MAY HELP TO IMPROVE WAYS OF TRAVEL

Nowadays more and more people are driving automobiles. There were about 30 million motorcars licensed in the United States in 1939. We need many miles of good roads. Most of our States have worked long and hard at road building, and today this country has some of the finest roads in the world.

In providing good roads local governments always need help. Many of our roads must extend long distances, sometimes the whole length of the State and farther. So the States build and repair "State roads" and usually help to pay the cost of building and repairing county and township roads. The State governments cooperate with the National Government in planning, building, and paying for national highways which cross their own States.

The States also issue licenses to owners of motor cars and trucks, and drivers' licenses or permits to qualified drivers. Sometimes they allow a "toll" to be charged for the use of public roads or bridges until the cost of building such roads or bridges has been paid back by the people who use them.

Most States require that railway crossings which are used by many people shall be guarded by gates or signal lights. They also set State speed limits for automobiles and sometimes for railroad trains.

A STATE MAY MAKE PROVISION FOR PEOPLE WHO ARE IN DISTRESS

State governments usually help to care for citizens who are unable to care for themselves. They often maintain homes for orphans and crippled children, homes for the aged, and special schools for the deaf and blind. Especially during times of unemployment, the work of the States in caring for their needy citizens is very necessary and important.