of M. Grimaux, the complex functions of morphine above alluded to also occupied the attention of another chemist, M. Chastaing, whose labours in this direction have resulted in the preparation and analysis of several definite chemical combinations of this alkaloid with potash, lime, and baryta.

Whatever doubt may hitherto have existed as to the presence of codeine and of narceine in the poppy heads of commerce, is now definitely removed by a communication on this subject addressed by Mr. T. B. Groves to the recent meeting of the British Pharmaceutical Conference. That some uncertainty did still prevail on this point may be seen from the statements respecting the chemistry of this drug in the "Pharmacographia," in which narceine is left entirely unmentioned among the known constituents of these capsules, while the presence of codeine is spoken of as somewhat doubtful. The variation in composition due to climate, soil, and different stages of maturity, the multitude of alkaloids probably present, the very minute proportion in which they occur, and the troublesome abundance of extractive and resinoid substances, referred to by Mr. Groves as a source of considerable difficulty and loss in the isolation and purification of these alkaloids, all combine to render anything like a complete elucidation of the chemistry of the poppy so intricate a task, that the discrepancies presented by the literature of this subject are far from surprising.

The observation, repeatedly made, that strychnine of commerce has not always the same composition, is confirmed by Messrs. A. Claus and R. Glassner, who find the formula of this base to be in some instances C22 H22 N, O2, while in others it is decidedly C21 H22 N2 O2. They do not regard this difference as at all due to the presence of impurities, but believe that Strychnos nur vomica is capable of producing this alkaloid with a variable amount of carbon. Mr. W. A. Shenstone, in continuation of his researches on brucine, reports having extracted the alkaloids from a large quantity of nux vomica, with the precaution of avoiding all heat in the presence of free acids or alkalies and employing as little heat as possible in the whole process. He describes a process of purification by which he has succeeded in freeing the brucine from every trace of strychnine. The numbers obtained in his analysis of pure brucine agree with C23 H26 N2O4, the formula generally adopted for this alkaloid. It still remains to be shown whether brucine perfectly free from strychnine does or does not possess toxic properties. The so-called igasurine, supposed to exist in the mother liquor left on the extraction of strychnine and brucine, and regarded by Schützenberger as

a complex mixture of bases, is found by Mr. Shenstone to be nothing but impure brucine.

Dr. C. R. A. Wright publishes a valuable summary of the final results of his long series of investigations of the aconite bases, including full directions for determining the purity of aconitine, the crystallizable alkaloid and chief active principle of Aconitum Napellus. In his opinion, the development of this subject has now reached a stage at which it may fitly pass from the hands of the purely scientific chemist to those of the pharmacist and manufacturing chemist, since the questions still remaining to be solved are the determination of the circumstances (as to soil, climate, age of plant, etc.) which influence the relative proportion between the crystallizable aconitine and the non-crystalline alkaloids naturally accompanying it, and the elaboration of the best method of separating the crystallizable base from these amorphous bodies on the large scale. It is to be hoped that efforts in this direction will prove successful, for upon this success depends the question whether pure aconitine is likely to find favour as a medicinal agent in preference to the indefinite mixture of bases now sold under that

name.

Messrs. E. Harnack and H. Meyer claim to have established the presence of a second alkaloid in jaborandi and in commercial pilocarpine. This new base, which they propose to call "jaborine," is said to differ from pilocarpine in its behaviour towards solvents and in its physiological action. Their formula for pilocarpine, C11 H16 N2 O2, does not agree with that found by Mr. Kingzett (Year-Book of Pharmacy, 1877, p. 615). The latter, however, maintains his own formula, the correctness of which is moreover confirmed by M. Poehl. Mr. Kingzett also declines to admit that Messrs. Harnack and Meyer have adduced sufficient evidence of the existence in true jaborandi of an alkaloid distinct from pilocarpine; and in this opinion he is supported by Mr. A. W. Gerrard, who attributes the results of these chemists to the presence of false jaborandi (Piper reticulatum) in the material operated upon.

The results of careful analyses of conine and of some of its salts have convinced Prof. A. W. Hofmann that the formula C, H15 N, generally accepted for this base, ought to be replaced by C, H1, N. Piturine, the alkaloid discovered in pituri by Mr. Gerrard in 1878, and subsequently alleged by M. Petit to be identical with nicotine, has now regained its individuality; for a close study of its characters and reactions recently carried out by Prof. Liversidge, shows it to be distinct from that base, as well as from conine, picoline,

pyridine, and aniline. Analyses of the alkaloid and of its mercuric chloride double salt lead to the formula C12 H16 N2. The latest researches on nicotine by Mr. R. Laiblin and MM. Cahours and Etard, are confined to some bromo-derivatives and oxidation products of this base.

Messrs. Hoogewerff and van Dorp have continued their researches on the action of potassium permanganate on the cinchona alkaloids, and report that quinine, cinchonine, quinidine, and cinchonidine, when thus oxidized, yield tricarbopyridinic acid, together with ammonia, oxalic, and carbonic acids. An investigation by Dr. O. Hesse, of the action of acetic anhydride and of hydrochloric acid on some of the cinchona bases, leads this chemist to the conclusion that quinine and cinchonidine contain one hydroxyl-group capable of being replaced by acetyl. The same author also supplies further evidence of the existence of homocinchonidine as an alkaloid distinct from cinchonidine, and thereby disproves the supposition, recently expressed by Mr. Z. H. Skraup (Year-Book of Pharmacy, 1880, p. 33), that these two bodies are identical. The important subject of quinine testing has received some further contributions. from Dr. G. Kerner and Dr. Hesse, whose previous work in this direction will be familiar to every reader of pharmaceutical literature. The former criticises somewhat unfavourably the process recommended by Dr. Hesse a few years ago (Year-Book of Pharmacy, 1879, p. 24), and quotes instances tending to show its occasional liability to error. He pleads in favour of his own mode of testing, known as the "ammonia-method," and adopted in the German Pharmacopoeia, and gives a more detailed description of this test. Since the amount of ammonia required for precipitating and redissolving the alkaloid from a definite volume of saturated solution of pure quinine sulphate is always constant under equal conditions, he regards the volume of ammonia solution needed for attaining the same result with the sample of sulphate under examination as a reliable measure of its purity and a ready means of approximately estimating the proportion of other alkaloids present in impure samples. Dr. Hesse, however, in returning to the charge, points out that when cinchonidine sulphate, instead of being merely mixed with sulphate of quinine, is crystallized together with the latter, it assumes a form in which it escapes detection by this test to a not inconsiderable extent. Both chemists agree that the amount of water of crystallization found in dry and non-effloresced samples of commercial sulphate often affords a ready indication of their purity. A report on the thalleioquin test, by Mr. C. F.

Zeller, deals with the conditions affecting the reaction, and shows the superiority of bromine water over chlorine water for the purpose of this test.

Paytine, the base discovered by Dr. Hesse in a white bark of unascertained botanical origin, known as cortex chinae albae de Payta, has lately been examined by Dr. N. Wulfsberg, with results inducing him to regard this body as most probably identical with aspidospermine, the alkaloid of white quebracho bark (Aspidosperma Quebracho). In opposition to this view, both Dr. Hesse and M. Arato point out differences in the composition and characters of these two bases, clearly proving them to be distinct bodies. The investigation leading Dr. Hesse to this conclusion has also revealed the existence in quebracho bark of a second alkaloid, which he proposes to name quebrachine, as well as the probable presence of several other bases. Quebrachine, C21 H26 Ng Os, possesses toxic properties.

The often debated question whether or not caffeine is capable of forming a definite chemical combination with citric acid, is ably discussed by Mr. J. U. Lloyd, whose results have no longer any reasonable doubt as to the existence of a definite citrate of this base. The difficulty hitherto experienced in producing such a compound is shown to be due to the fact that the salt is decomposed by all solvents which, like water or alcohol, dissolve citric acid readily and caffeine sparingly, and that for this reason the use of such solvents in the preparation of this salt can only lead to the formation of a mere mixture of acid and base. That such a product is nothing but a mixture, is proved by the action of cold chloroform, which dissolves from it the caffeine, leaving the citric acid undissolved. Mr. Lloyd therefore employs a mixture of 2 parts of chloroform and 1 part of alcohol, which exerts a nearly equal solvent action on both acid and base; and by means of this menstruum he obtains a real compound, the constituents of which cannot be separated by treatment with chloroform. The relation of caffeine to theobromine is receiving the attention of able investigators; but all attempts of converting one into the other have so far proved unsuccessful.

The differences in the formulæ given by different chemists for picrotoxin, the poisonous principle of cocculus indicus, have induced Messrs. Barth and Kretschy to reinvestigate this substance. They report that, by a process of fractional crystallization from benzol and water, they have ascertained this body to be a mixture of three different principles, which they propose to name "picrotoxin,"

'picrotin," and "anamirtin." The correctness of this statement, however, is called in question by MM. Paternò and Oglialoro, who arrive at the conclusion that "picrotoxin" and "picrotin" of those chemists are decomposition products of true picrotoxin, formed during the repeated boiling with benzol. This view is confirmed by the results of a research recently published by Drs. E. Schmidt and E. Löwenhardt. The latter also announce the isolation from cocculus indicus of a new body, provisionally named by them "cocculin," which may possibly prove to be identical with the anamirtin of Messrs. Barth and Kretschy.

In an interesting article on "ptomaines," the alkaloidal bodies found in exhumed corpses as the result of putrefactive processes, Prof. Husemann deals with the relation of these substances to forensic chemistry and toxicology, and lays particular stress upon the importance of discovering reactions which will distinguish these poisonous bodies from the natural vegetable alkaloids and similar toxic principles. MM. Brouardel and Boutmy claim to have established such a distinction, by showing that the ptomaines exercise a reducing action upon potassium ferricyanide, which, with the exception of morphine and veratrine, is not shared by vegetable alkaloids; but the fallacy of this statement is demonstrated both by M. Gautier and M. Tanret, who give quite a list of poisonous vegetable principles, all of which, more or less, effect a similar reduction.

A further report on meconic acid, by Mr. D. B. Dott, furnishes additional evidence against the assumed tribasic nature of this acid, and shows that the so-called meconates of silver and lead do not possess the character of definite salts. A handy method of purifying chrysophanic acid, consisting in the precipitation of the acid from its chloroform solution by means of rectified spirit, is described by M. Agema. Prof. Thorpe directs attention to the ready convertibility of gallic acid into pryrogallol by heating a glycerin solution of the former for a short time to 190-200° C., and suggests this mode of conversion as an advantageous process of preparing pyrogallic acid for photographic purposes. In connection with this subject he reminds pharmacists of the necessity of avoiding too high a temperature in the preparation of the officinal glycerinum acidi gallici in order to prevent the formation of pyrogallol. The spontaneous reddening of carbolic acid is attributed by Mr. H. W. Langbeck to the formation of rosolic acid under the influence of light.

The synthesis of citric acid has been successfully carried out by