Upper Atmosphere" (Washington: Naval Research Laboratory, 28 Aug. 1957), bound mimeographed typescript, pp. 3-4.

24. Col. H. N. Toftoy to Commanding General, White Sands Proving Ground, in Megerian, minutes of panel, rpt. 13, 29 Dec. 1947, encl. E.

25. Boyd and Seaton, Rocket Exploration.

26. Megerian, minutes of panel, rpt. 34, 29, 30 Jan. 1953, and rpt. 35, 29 Apr. 1953.

27. Ibid., rpt. 36, 7 Oct. 1953, and rpt. 37, 4 Feb. 1954; L. V. Berkner, ed., Manual on Rockets and Satellites, in Annals of the International Geophysical Year, 6 (London: Pergamon Press, 1958): 54-55.

28. Megerian, minutes of panel, rpt. 37, 4 Feb. 1954; rpt. 39, 9 Sept. 1954; and rpt. 40, 3 Feb. 1955. 29. Berkner, Rockets and Satellites, p. 55.

30. Megerian, minutes of panel, rpt. 39, 9 Sept. 1954.

31. James A. Van Allen, ed., Scientific Uses of Earth Satellites (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1956); Megerian, minutes of panel, rpt. 43, 26, 27 Jan. 1956, Attendance List.

32. Megerian, minutes of panel, early October 1957 through February 1958. See specifically: Committee on the Occupation of Space files for October and November 1957; rpt. 48, 13-14 Nov. 1957; rpt. 49, 6 Dec. 1957; Executive Committee Report, Jan. 1958.

33. Ibid., rpt. 49, 6 Dec. 1957.

34. Space Flight Technical Committee of the American Rocket Society, "A National Space Flight Program," Astronautics 3 (Jan. 1958): 21-28.

35. Congress, Subcommittee of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy of the United States, Outer Space Propulsion by Nuclear Energy, hearings, 85th Cong., 2d sess., 22, 23 Jan. and 6 Feb. 1958, pp. 149-73.

36. Megerian, minutes of panel, rpt. 49, 6 Dec. 1957.

37. Ibid.

38. W. H. Pickering to Homer E. Newell, Jr., 27 May 1960, in NASA History Office files. 39. Megerian, minutes of panel, rpt. 1960-1, 17 Feb. 1960.

Chapter 5

1. Niels H. de V. Heathcote and Angus Armitage, "The First International Polar Year (1882-1883)," Annals of the International Geophysical Year, 1 (London: Pergamon Press, 1959): 6 (hereafter cited as IGY Annals); V. Laursen, "The Second International Polar Year," IGY Annals, 1:211.

2. G. Breit and M. A. Tuve, “A Test of the Existence of the Conducting Layer," Physical Review 28 (Sept. 1926): 554-75.

3. Sir Harold Spencer Jones, "The Inception and Development of the International Geophysical Year," IGY Annals, 1:383. The reader desiring to delve further into the IGY will find in the Annals details of the planning and many of the results of the IGY. Very readable accounts of IGY are given by Sydney Chapman, IGY: Year of Discovery (Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press, 1959); Walter Sullivan, Assault on the Unknown: The International Geophysical Year (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1961, 1971); Ronald Fraser, Once around the Sun (New York: Macmillan, 1957); and Alexander Marshak, The World in Space (New York: Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1958).

4. Sydney Chapman, President of CSAGI, Brussels, 28 Jan. 1957, IGY Annals, 1:3.

5. L. V. Berkner, ed., Manual on Rockets and Satellites, in IGY Annals, 6:54-55. See also app. 7.1. 6. R. Cargill Hall, "Early U.S. Satellite Proposals," Technology and Culture 4 (Fall, 1963): 410-34; William H. Pickering, “History of the Juno Cluster System,” in Astronautical Engineering and Science, ed. Ernst Stuhlinger et al. (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1963), pp. 204-05.

7. S. F. Singer, "Research in the Upper Atmosphere with Sounding Rockets and Earth Satellite Vehicles," Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 11 (1952): 61-73; idem, “A Minimum Orbital Instrumented Satellite-Now," ibid. 13 (1954): 74-79; idem, "Astrophysical Measurements from an Earth Satellite," chapter in Rocket Exploration of the Upper Atmosphere, ed. R. L. F. Boyd and M. J. Seaton (Oxford: Pergamon Press; New York: Interscience Publishers, 1954), p. 369; idem, "Studies of a Minimum Orbital Unmanned Satellite of the Earth (MOUSE)," pt. 1, “Geophysical and Astrophysical Applications," Astronautica Acta 1 (1955): 171–84.

8. L. V. Berkner, CSAGI Reporter for Rockets and Satellites, in the introduction to IGY Annals, 6:1–2. 9. Ibid.

10. Ibid.

11. Constance McLaughlin Green and Milton Lomask, Vanguard: A History (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1971), pp. 34-56.

12. Berkner, Rockets and Satellites, pp. 283-84. See also app. 7.1

13. Berkner, Rockets and Satellites, p. 2. Also author's contemporaneous notes (hereafter referred to as author's notebooks [NF28] in NASA History Office).

14. Author's notebooks (NF28).

15. Ibid. The quotation is approximate.

16. Mary Stone Ambrose, "The National Space Program: Phase I: Passage of the 'National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958,'" M.A. thesis (Washington: American Univ., July 1960), pp. 39-44, 154. 17. Alison Griffith, The Nasa Act: A Study of the Development of Public Policy (Washington: Public Affairs Press, 1962); Enid Curtis Bok Schoettle, “The Establishment of NASA,” in Knowledge and Power: Essays on Science and Government, ed. Sanford A. Lakoff (New York: Free Press, 1966); Arthur L. Levine, The Future of the U.S. Space Program (New York: Praeger, 1975); Ambrose, "The National Space Program."

Chapter 6

1. Homer E. Newell, Jr., High Altitude Rocket Research (New York: Academic Press, 1953), pp. 111-42; the Rocket Panel, "Pressures, Densities, and Temperatures in the Upper Atmosphere," Physical Review 88 (Dec. 1952): 1027-32.

2. B. Haurwitz, “The Physical State of the Upper Atmosphere,” reprinted from Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, Oct. 1936-Feb. 1937 (Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press, 1937; with addition, 1941).

3. T. H. Johnson, "Cosmic Ray Intensity and Geomagnetic Effects," Reviews of Modern Physics 10 (Oct. 1938): 193-244.

4. Fred L. Whipple, "Meteors and the Earth's Upper Atmosphere," Reviews of Modern Physics 15 (Oct. 1943): 246-64.

5. S. K. Mitra, The Upper Atmosphere (Calcutta: Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1947), 519.

6. Ibid., pp. 5-8.

7. Ibid., p. 511.

8. B. Stewart, in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed., 16 (1882): 181.

9. A. E. Kennelly, “On the Elevation of the Electrically-Conducting Strata of the Earth's Atmosphere," Electric World and Engineering 39 (Mar. 1902): 473; O. Heaviside, "Telegraphy-Theory," Encyclopaedia Britannica, 10th ed., 33 (1902): 213-18.

10. E. V. Appleton and M. A. F. Barnett, “Local Reflection of Wireless Waves from the Upper Atmosphere," Nature 115 (March 1925): 333-34; idem, “On Some Direct Evidence for Downward Atmospheric Reflection of Electric Rays," Proceedings of the Royal Society, A 109(1925): 621-41. 11. G. Breit and M. A. Tuve, “A Test of the Existence of the Conducting Layer," Physical Review 28 (Sept. 1926): 554-75.

12. Mitra, Upper Atmosphere, chap. 6.

13. Ibid., pp. 257-61.

14. Ibid., p. 512.

15. Ibid., pp. 328-30.

16. See, for example, C. Størmer, “Twenty-five Years' Work on the Polar Aurora,” Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity 35 (1930): 193–208.

17. Newell, High Altitude Rocket Research, pp. 237-45.

18. See also I. S. Bowen, R. A. Millikan, and H. V. Neher, "New Light on the Nature and Origin of the Incoming Cosmic Rays," Physical Review 53 (June 1938): 855-61.

19. M. Schein, W. P. Jesse, and E. O. Wollan, "The Nature of the Primary Cosmic Radiation and the Origin of the Mesotron," Physical Review 59 (Apr. 1941): 615.

20. Mitra, Upper Atmosphere, pp. 77-87.

21. Haurwitz, Upper Atmosphere, p. 79; p. 8.

22. Mitra, Upper Atmosphere, p. 87.

23. Whipple, "Meteors and the Earth's Upper Atmosphere."

24. Mitra, Upper Atmosphere, p. 146.

25. Ibid., p. 151.

26. Ibid., p. 518.

27. Ibid., pp. 515-19.

28. Homer E. Newell, Jr., Sounding Rockets (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1959), pp. 37-43. 29. Homer E. Newell, Jr., and Leonard N. Cormier, eds., First Results of IGY Rocket and Satellite Research, vol. 12, pts. 1 and 2, in Annals of the International Geophysical Year (London: Pergamon Press, 1960).

30. W. A. Baum, F. S. Johnson, J. J. Oberly, C. C. Rockwood, C. V. Strain, and R. Tousey, "Solar Ultraviolet Spectrum to 88 Kilometers," Physical Review 70 (Nov. 1916): 781-82.

31. Herbert Friedman, "The Sun's Ionizing Radiations," chapter in Physics of the Upper Atmosphere, ed. J. A. Ratcliffe (New York: Academic Press, 1960), pp. 133–218.

32. J. J. Hopfield and H. E. Clearman, Jr., “The Ultraviolet Spectrum of the Sun from V-2 Rockets," Physical Review 73 (Apr. 1948): 877-84.

33. E. Durand, J. J. Oberly, and R. Tousey, "Analysis of the First Rocket Ultraviolet Spectra," Astrophysical Journal 109 (Jan. 1949): 1–16.

34. W. A. Rense, “Intensity of Lyman-Alpha Line in the Solar Spectrum," Physical Review 91 (15 July 1953): 299-302; idem, “Solar Ultraviolet Radiation and Its Effect on the Earth's Upper Atmosphere,” in Advances in Space Research, ed. T. M. Tabanera et al. (London: Pergamon Press, 1964), pp. 275-76.

35. Rense, "Solar Ultraviolet and Its Effect on the Earth's Upper Atmosphere," pp. 278-79. 36. Newell, High Altitude Rocket Research, p. 161; Friedman, "The Sun's Ionizing Radiations,” pp. 168-78. 37. F. S. Johnson, J. D. Purcell, and R. Tousey, “Measurements of the Vertical Distribution of Atmospheric Ozone from Rockets," Journal of Geophysical Research 56 (Dec. 1951): 583-94; F. S. Johnson et al., “Direct Measurements of the Vertical Distribution of Atmospheric Ozone to 70 Kilometers Altitude," Journal of Geophysical Research 57 (June 1952): 157-76: J. A. Van Allen and J.J. Hopfield, "Preliminary Report on Atmospheric Ozone Measurements from Rockets," in L'étude optique de l'atmosphère terrestre: communications présentées au colloque international tenu à l'Institut d'Astrophysique de l'Université de Liège les 3 et 4 septembre 1951 (Louvain: Imprimere Ceuterick, 1952), pp. 179-83.

38. Newell, High Altitude Rocket Research, pp. 111-42; idem, "The Upper Atmosphere Studied by Rockets and Satellites," chapter in Ratcliffe, Physics of the Upper Atmosphere, pp. 74–101.

39. W. G. Stroud, W. Nordberg, W. R. Bandeen, F. L. Bartman, and P. Titus, "Rocket Grenade Measurements of Temperature and Winds in the Mesosphere over Churchill, Canada," in Space Research: Proceedings of the First International Space Science Symposium, Nice, 1960, ed. H. K. Kallmann-Bijl (Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Co., 1960), pp. 117-43.

40. Friedman, “The Sun's Ionizing Radiations,” pp. 208-14.

41. The Rocket Panel, “Pressures, Densities, and Temperatures in the Upper Atmosphere.”

42. Newell, "The Upper Atmosphere Studied by Rockets and Satellites," pp. 74-97.

43. Ibid., pp. 102-11.

44. Newell, High Altitude Rocket Research, pp. 203-08.

45. J. W. Townsend, Jr., “Radiofrequency Mass Spectrometer for Upper Air Research," Reviews of Scientific Instruments 23 (1952): 538-41.

46. Newell, "The Upper Atmosphere Studied by Rockets and Satellites," pp. 112-18. E. B. Meadows and J. W. Townsend, Jr., “IGY Rocket Measurements of Arctic Atmospheric Composition Above 100 Km," in Space Research, ed. Kallmann-Bijl, pp. 175-98. C. Y. Johnson, “Aeronomic Measurements," in Advances in Space Research, ed. Tabanera et al., pp. 295-317.

47. Newell, "The Upper Atmosphere Studied by Rockets and Satellites," pp. 119-20.

48. Ibid., pp. 108–11.

49. A. V. Gangnes, J. F. Jenkins, Jr., and J. A. Van Allen, "The Cosmic Ray Intensity above the Atmosphere," Physical Review 75 (Jan. 1949): 57-69.

50. G. J. Perlow et al., “Rocket Determination of the Ionization Spectrum of Charged Cosmic Rays at λ = 41° N." Physical Review 88 (Oct. 1952): 321-25.

51. L. H. Meredith, M. B. Gottlieb, and J. A. Van Allen, “Direct Detection of Soft Radiation Above 50 Kilometers in the Auroral Zone," Physical Review 97 (1 Jan. 1955); 201; J. A. Van Allen, “Rocket Measurement of Soft Radiation," in First Results of IGY Rocket and Satellite Research, ed. Newell and Cormier, pp. 646-50.

52. Paper presented by Van Allen at joint meeting of National Academy of Sciences and Physical Society on 1 May 1958. See also, J. A. Van Allen, G. H. Ludwig, E. C. Ray, and C. E. McIlwain, "The Observation of High Intensity Radiation by Satellites 1958 a and y," in First Results of IGY Rocket and Satellite Research, ed. Newell and Cormier, pp. 671-81.

53. J. E. Kupperian et al., “Far Ultraviolet Radiation in the Night Sky," in First Results of IGY Rocket and Satellite Research, ed. Newell and Cormier, pp. 619-22; J. E. Kupperian et al., “Rocket Astronomy in the Far Ultraviolet," ibid., pp. 622-26; Herbert Friedman et al., Space Astronomy: A New Era in the Making, a series of articles reprinted from Astronautics & Aeronautics 7 (Mar, and May 1969), pp. 34-75.

Chapter 7

1. Alison Griffith, The National Aeronautics and Space Act: A Study of the Development of Public Policy (Washington: Public Affairs Press, 1962), pp. 100-01.

2. Ibid., pp. 17-18.

3. R. Cargill Hall, “Early U.S. Satellite Proposals," Technology and Culture 4 (Fall 1963): 410–34. 4. Homer E. Newell, Jr., Sounding Rockets (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1959); Milton W. Rosen, The Viking Rocket Story (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1955): Constance McLaughlin Green and Milton Lomask, l'anguard: A History (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1971); William H. Pickering, "History of the Juno Cluster System," chap. 12 in Astronautical Engineering and Science, ed. Ernst Stuhlinger et al. (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1963); Homer E. Newell, Jr., Guide to Rockets, Missiles, and Satellites (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1958).

5. "Introduction to Outer Space," rpt. prepared by panel of President's Science Advisory Committee, endorsed by PSAC, and issued by the White House with presidential endorsement 26 Mar. 1958. 6. Griffith, The Space Act, p. 9.

7. Ibid., p. 11.

8. William G. Stroud, handwritten notes on 14 Feb. 1958 meeting of Rocket and Satellite Research Panel (copy in NF41, NASA History Office).

9. Alex Roland, Research by Committee: A History of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, NASA SP-4103, comment ed. (Washington, 1979).

10. Ibid.

11. NACA, “A National Research Program for Space Technology," multilith (Washington, 14 Jan. 1958).

12. Senate Special Committee on Space and Aeronautics, Compilations of Materials on Space and Aeronautics, no. 2, 85th Cong., 2d sess., committee print, 1958, pp. 293-94; NACA, “A Program for Expansion of NACA Research in Space Flight Technology with Estimates of the Staff and Facilities Required" (Washington, 10 Feb. 1958).

13. Robert L. Rosholt, An Administrative History of NASA, 1958-1963, NASA SP-4101 (Washington, 1966), p. 9.

14. Arthur L. Levine, “United States Aeronautical Research Policy, 1915-1958," doctoral dissertation, Columbia Univ. (1963), p. 155.

15. Griffith, The Space Act, p. 44.

16. Griffith, The Space Act; Enid Curtis Bok Schoettle, "The Establishment of NASA," in Knowledge and Power: Essays on Science and Government, ed. Sanford A. Lakoff (New York: Free Press, 1966); Arthur L. Levine, The Future of the U.S. Space Program (New York: Praeger Publishers. 1975); Mary Stone Ambrose, "The National Space Program: Phase I: Passage of the 'National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958,'” M. A. thesis, American University (July 1960).

17. Griffith, The Space Act, p. 12.

18. Senate Committee on Space and Aeronautics, Compilations, no. 2, pp. 308-09.

19. House Committee on Science and Astronautics, A Chronology of Missiles and Astronautic Events, H. rpt. 67, 87th Cong., 1st sess., 8 Mar. 1961, pp. 41-42.

20. Ibid., p. 44.

21. Griffith, The Space Act, p. 14.

22. Ibid., chap. 6.

23. Ibid., pp. 65-74,

24. Ibid., pp. 75-96; Rosholt, Administrative History of NASA, pp. 12–15.

25. Griffith, The Space Act, p. 45.

26. Ibid., p. 1.

27. NASA, Office of the General Counsel, “National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958, as Amended, and Related Legislation” (Washington, 1 July 1969), p. 1.

28. Ibid., passim. 29. Ibid., p. 4.

30. Reorganization Plan No. 4 of 1965, effective 27 July 1965 (30 Federal Register 9353, 28 July 1965, 79 Stat. 384).

31. NASA General Counsel, "NASA Act," p. 29.

32. Rosholt, Administrative History of NASA, p. 40.

Chapter 8

1. Author's notebooks, 16 Dec. 58, NF28.

2. Robert L. Rosholt, An Administrative History of NASA, 1958-1963, NASA SP-4101 (Washington, 1966), pp. 37-116.

3. Ibid., pp. 38-40.

4. Ibid., app. B. p. 332.

5. NACA, "A National Program for Space Technology," multilith (Washington: NACA, 14 Jan. 1958). 6. Rosholt, Administrative History of NASA, fig. 3-2, fig. 3-3.

7. T. Keith Glennan to Monte Wright, 15 July 1978, comments on draft Newell manuscript, NF-40. 8. Homer E. Newell, conference report on meeting of Space Science Panel of the President's Science Advisory Committee, 18 Dec. 1959, NF12(173).

9. Rosholt, Administrative History of NASA, p. 341; facing p. 344, chart no. 1.

10. Bruce K. Byers, Destination Moon: A History of the Lunar Orbiter Program, NASA TM X-3487 (Washington, Apr. 1977), pp. 25-36.

11. Edward C. Ezell and Linda Neuman Ezell, On Mars: Exploration of the Red Planet, 1958-1978, NASA SP-4212, in press.

12. House Committee on Science and Astronautics, Astronautical and Aeronautical Events of 1962, 88th Cong., 1st sess., committee print, 12 June 1963, p. 203.

13. Author's notebooks, 18 Feb. 1960, NF28.

14. William R. Corliss, The Interplanetary Pioneers, vol. 1, Summary, NASA SP-278 (Washington, 1972), pp. 3-4.

15. Rosholt, Administrative History of NASA, fig. 3-3.

16. Joseph A. Shortal, A New Dimension: Wallops Island Flight Test Range, the First Fifteen Years, NASA RP-1028 (Washington, 1978).

17. Rosholt, Administrative History of NASA, p. 47.

18. Alfred Rosenthal, l'enture into Space: Early Years of Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA SP-4301 (Washington, 1968), pp. 28-29.

19. Rosholt, Administrative History of NASA, p. 47.

20. American Geophysical Union, “Report of Committee on Geodetic Applications of Artificial Satellites" (Washington, 1 Sept. 1958), encl. in John A. O'Keefe to Homer E. Newell, 20 June 1978; NF40 (Newell Files, Box 40, in National Archives Federal Records Center; see Bibliographical Essay for description of files and explanation of NF designations); John O'Keefe, “Geodetic Significance of an Artificial Satellite," app. to ARS Space Flight Committee's "Utility of an Earth Satellite," pp. 75-76; O'Keefe and C. D. Batchelor, “Perturbations of a Close Satellite by the Equatorial Ellipticity of the Earth, Astronomical Journal 62(1957): 183; O'Keefe, “An Application of Jacobi's Integral to the Motion of an Earth Satellite," Astronomical Journal 62 (1957): 203; idem. “Geodesy Comes of Age with Vanguard," Astronautics 2 (Aug. 1957); 71-73, 92; F. L. Whipple and J. A. Hynek, "A Research Program Based on the Optical Tracking of Artificial Earth Satellites," Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 44 (June 1956), 760-64.

21. Minutes, NACA Executive Committee, Washington, 20 Feb. 1958, in NASA History Office. 22. "Recommendations to the NASA Regarding a National Civil Space Program," typescript rpt. of NACA Special Committee on Space Technology, 28 Oct. 1958, in NASA History Office.

23. Loyd S. Swenson, Jr., James M. Grimwood, and Charles C. Alexander, This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury, NASA SP-4201 (Washington, 1966), pp. 76, 91-106.

24. Eugene M. Emme, Aeronautics and Astronautics: An American Chronology of Science and Technology in the Exploration of Space, 1915–1960 (Washington: NASA, 1961), pp. 102-03.

25. Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, NASA Authorization for Fiscal Year 1960, hearings, pt. 1, Scientific and Technical Presentations, 86th Cong., 1st sess., 7-10 Apr. 1959, pp. 127-226.