order, a genus, a species from one or more others, is named a character; and the collection of all those last the system of characters, or characteristic. That collection of marks, by the knowledge of which we obtain a complete representation of the object, is named a description. The description, and the matters connected with it, are doubtless of great importance for mineralogy, (ii. 56.); but the investigation of them belongs not to this place. 6. Scias, characterem non constituere genus, sed genus characterem. Linné, Phil. Bot. § 169.-The system of characters belonging to the natural history system will be estimated in the right point of view, by considering that it is not the character that determines the order, the genus, the species; but the order, the genus, the species, that determine the character. The justness of the settlement of the orders and genera, cannot therefore be discovered from the characters, but only from the natural history properties of the substances comprised in that determination. The system of characters will not, however, be without its use, if, by means of it, the individuals can be easily submitted to natural historical conceptions.

7. Difficulty of the system of characters in a natural system of Mineralogy.-In artificial systems, the settlement of the characters is attended with no difficulty; in a natural one with very much. In the natural system of mineralogy, these difficulties manifest themselves chiefly in what regards the orders. When the orders have been collocated in nature, the examination of them clearly displays their difference. But on attempting to denote these differences by marks, and to express them by words, the mineralogist has to strive with an almost boundless multiplicity, which most frequently divests the marks of their universality. This renders it necessary, instead of particular marks, to employ their mutual relations; from which arise some properties not altogether corresponding to the characters.

8. No chemical helps to it.-One apparent mode of obviating this difficulty is not unknown to me. It is indeed easy to discover that the genera and species of the natural history orders, agree in certain chemical relations; and these might have been admitted among the characters. The latter would, in this case, have been simplified and abbreviated,-and thus have been provided with qualities very desirable for them. In the higher steps

of previous systems, the introduction of chemical characters usually passes without examination; they are placed there only "to satisfy the understanding;" therefore, the mode alluded to would have met with acceptance. But what contradicts the principles of a science can never satisfy the understanding; and it is better to endure censure, than, by violating the principles of natural history, to deserve it.

9. Properties of the characters.-The characters ought to be as short and as uniform as possible. Those of the classes, genera and species, possess the properties just mentioned; but in those of the orders, brevity is not to be attained. However, this defect is no obstacle to its employment in the mean time, and will probably be extenuated afterwards, if the natural historical path in mineralogy be more frequently trodden.

10. Specimen of the system of characters.-To avoid becoming prolix, in discussing the various circumstances that concern this matter, it seems advisable to subjoin a specimen of the system of characters. It contains, (1) the characters of the classes; (2) the characters of three contiguous orders belonging to the second class, the metals, pyrites, and glances; (3) the characters of three genera belonging to the second of these orders, cobalt-pyrites, iron-pyrites, copper-pyrites; and (4) the characters of the species belonging to the second of these genera, the hexaedral, prismatic, and rhomboidal iron-pyrites *.

11. Use.-Immediate determination. The mode of using this system of characters is the same as in zoology and botany; it needs no farther explanation. Some remarks are, however, necessary upon the condition of those individuals to be settled by means of it. In the characters of species, form, hardness and specific gravity are the principal characteristics; and this is always the case in every species of such a nature as to admit the observation of them. Hence if the settlement of an individual is to be completed, those three characteristics must be capable of being observed in it. Put the case, that, with regard to an individual of the genus Iron-pyrites, the form could not be discovered, though both the hardness and the specific gravity

• Second Appendix. VOL. IV. NO. 7. JANUARY 1821.

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might be sufficiently determined. In these circumstances, it would be found that this individual belongs to the genus ironpyrites; it might also be hence concluded that its form is not rhomboidal; but whether it be hexaedral or prismatic iron-pyrites, would remain undetermined. Any mineral which admits of the preceding three characteristics being observed, is, by means of this system of characters, an object of natural historical determination. This mode of determination is named the immediate mode.

12. Mediate determination.-But all minerals are not found to allow the preceding three characteristics to be estimated, with the required degree of precision. The form is sometimes not to be discovered, even by applying the means previously explained. (i. 65.) Such individuals, therefore, do not admit an immediate determination; and the mineralogist, in regard to them, finds himself in the same situation as the botanist, when a vegetable that does not flower is presented to him. In this case, the botanist compares the unblossoming plant with one that does blossom; and practice has taught him, how far this comparison must be carried to produce a sure result. The mineralogist proceeds in exactly a similar manner. He determines the individual not capable of immediate determination, by means of others, which he forms into a series, placing the given mineral at the end. This mode of determination is named the mediate. It depends on the transitions, and has already been so frequently applied, that it were superfluous to say more on the subject.

13. Beginners ought first to engage with the immediate, then with the mediate mode of determination.-Every natural history system, with its dependencies, is first intended for the tyro in natural history. When a beginner has acquired an acquaintance with the characteristics, and some dexterity in the observation of cleavage; he ought diligently to employ himself in the examination of such minerals as are immediately determinable. Of this kind are those among the solid fossils, in which form (be it either the external or the cleavage form,) hardness and specific gravity are each capable of being estimated,-presupposing, with regard to the first of these characteristics, that the species appear in regular forms. For when this is not the case, as in coals, &c., the form is also at the same time unne

cessary for determining the species. By this means he will gain an acquaintance with the productions of the mineral kingdom, such as to fit him, in a short time, for applying himself with advantage to those minerals which are only to be determined mediately. A little practice will soon secure to him the requisite experience here also; and now the means are in his hand of extending his acquaintance with the productions of the mineral kingdom, in a fundamental, sure, and instructive manner, to whatever length he may incline. The few minerals which are entirely indeterminable, (and which have been erroneously exalted to the rank of separate species,) he must be content to study empirically; and he will have the less reason to complain of this, when he reflects, that hitherto few mineralogists have been enabled to gain a knowledge of the productions of inorganic nature, in any other way, than by methods, which, though enveloped in much erudition, are strictly empirical.

(To be concluded in our next Number.)

ART. VII.-Account of Mr ROBERT BOWMAN of Irthington, in Cumberland, who has completed his 115th year. By Dr BARNES. In a Letter to Professor JAMESON *.

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DEAR SIR,

was lately induced by curiosity to visit a remarkable instance of longevity, of which I have drawn up the following brief notice. At my first visit, I was accompanied by two gentlemen, and on making inquiry for old Mr Bowman, the name of the individual alluded to, the person of whom the inquiry was made, very significantly asked, if we meant "the old man of all ?" I have since understood, that this is not an uncommon, and certainly a very emphatic, appellation for the old man. You may probably think the following account contains too much of the physician, and too little of the philosopher, for insertion in the

Read before the Wernerian Natural History Society.

Philosophical Journal. But should you deem it sufficiently interesting for publication, it is at your service. I am, Dear Sir, your obedient servant, THOMAS BARNES, M. D. CARLISLE, Sept. 14. 1820.

MR ROBERT BOWMAN of Irthington, in Cumberland, who is now living, and has completed his 115th year, was born at Bridgewood-Foot, a small farm-house near the river Irthing, about two miles from his present residence. His birth-day is not known, but he believes he was born about Christmas. As some doubts have been entertained with respect to his age, to put it beyond dispute, I have examined the register of his bap tism, at the parish-church of Hayton. His name, and place of nativity, as well as the year of his baptism, which was 1705, are very legible; but from his name having been placed at the foot of the page, the month and day are worn out. The baptism imiediately preceding his, was on the 23d of September, and the next succeeding on the 28th of October: of course, his must have been between these periods; and if his own account be correct, which the register nearly confirms, he will be 116 years of age at Christmas next. This interesting old man enjoys exceeding good health, and is content and cheerful. He is of the middle stature, and says, when young, he was rather stout, and very strong; that he was fond of wrestling, and considered himself a good one. He joined in the amusements common among young people, and was rather partial to cock-fighting, which he now strongly condemns; but was always sober and regular in his conduct. His parents both died when he was young, but he says that he remembers them very well. He married at the age of 50, and had six sons, all of whom are now living; the oldest is 59 years of age, and the youngest 47. He has a great number of grandchildren, and three great-grandchildren. His wife died at Irthington in the year 1807, at the age of 81. His sons pay him a visit regularly once a year: they appoint a convenient day, and his friends in the village and neighbourhood are invited to meet them. With him this is a day of great rejoicing. His chest is large, and his person well proportioned. Although the hand of Time has at length laid him prostrate, it has not yet