shan; whence they were soon taken by the brave inhabitants of Jabesh Gilead. (1 Sam. xxxi. 9-12.) A heap of stones was raised over the grave of princes, as in the case of Absalom. (2 Sam. xviii. 17.) The daily diminishing cairn of pebble-stones, situated about two miles from the lake of Grasmere, in Cumberland, and known by the appellation of Dunmail Raise-stones, was raised in a like manner to com memorate the name and defeat of Dunmail, a petty king of Cumbria, A. D. 945 or 946, by the Anglo-Saxon monarch Edmund I. When a city was taken, after being rased to the foundation, it was sometimes sowed with salt, and ploughed up, in token of perpetual desolation. In this manner Abimelech, after putting the inhabitants of Shechem to the sword, levelled it with the ground, and sowed it with salt: and thus many centuries after, the emperor Frederick Barbarossa (A. D. 1163), irritated at the long and strenuous defence made by the besieged inhabitants of Milan, on capturing that city, abandoned it to pillage, and sparing nothing but the churches, ordered it to be entirely rased to the ground, which was ploughed and sown with salt, in memory of its rebellion.5 The prophet Micah (iii. 12.) foretold that Jerusalem should be ploughed as a field, and his prediction (as we have seen in another part of this work) was most literally fulfilled after Jerusalem was taken by the Roman army under Titus. It was not unusual in remote antiquity to pronounce a curse upon those who should rebuild a destroyed city. Thus Joshua denounced a curse upon the man who should rebuild Jericho (Josh. vi. 26.), the fulfilment of which is recorded in 1 Kings xvi. 34. In like manner Cræsus uttered a curse on him who should rebuild the walls of Sidene, which he had destroyed; and the Romans also upon him who should rebuild the city of Carthage. presence, and an incitement to valiant achievements. Ittened his body and the bodies of his sons to the wall of Beth was taken by the Philistines in the time of the high-priest Eli (1 Sam. iv. 11.), but subsequently restored. In like manner the Philistines carried their deities into the field of battle (1 Chron. xiv. 12.); and it appears that Jeroboam and the Israelites of the ten tribes had their golden calves with them in the field. (2 Chron. xiii. 8.) Before they engaged in battle, the law of Moses appointed two priests to blow with two silver trumpets (Num. x. 9.), which are described by Josephus to have been a cubit long, and narrow like a pipe, but wider, as ours are, at the bottom; no more than two were at first ordered for present use, but more were afterwards made when the priests and the people were increased. There were others called trumpets of rams' horns (Josh. vi. 4.), probably from their shape, which were used in war, to incite the soldiers to the conflict. These instruments were blown to call the people to the sanctuary to pay their devotion, and pray to God before they engaged; and they were sounded with a particular blast, that they might know the meaning of the summons: then the anointed for the war, going from one battalion to another, was to exhort the soldiers to fight valiantly. (Deut. xx. 2.) There were officers whose duty it was to make proclamation, that those whose business it was should make sufficient provision for the army before they marched; and every tenth man was appointed for that purpose. (Josh. i. 10, 11. Judg. xx. 10.) "Sometimes they advanced to battle singing hymns (2 Chron. xx. 21, 22.); and the signal was given by the priests sounding the trumpets. (Num. x. 9. Judg. vi. 34. 2 Chron. xiii. 14. 1 Macc. iii, 54. iv. 13.) It should seem that a notion prevailed among the ancient idolatrous nations of the East, of the efficacy of devoting an enemy to destruction. Under this persuasion Balak engaged Balaam to curse the Israelites because they were too mighty for him (Num. xxii. 6.); and Goliath cursed David by his gods. (1 Sam. xvii. 43.)2 Various indignities and cruelties were inflicted on those The Romans in later times had a peculiar form of evoking or who had the misfortune to be taken captive. On some occacalling out the gods, under whose protection a place was sions particular districts were marked out for destruction. supposed to be, and also of devoting the people, which is (2 Sam. viii. 2.) Of those whose lives were spared, the fully described by Macrobius,3 and many accounts are related victors set their feet upon the necks (Josh. x. 24.), or mutiin the Hindoo puranas of kings employing sages to curse lated their persons' (Judg. i. 7. 2 Sam. iv. 12. Ezek. xxiii. their enemies when too powerful for them. It was custom-25.8), or imposed upon them the severest and most laborious ary for the Hebrew kings or their generals (in common with occupations. (2 Sam. xii. 31.). It was the barbarous custom other ancient nations) to deliver an address to their armies. of the conquerors of those times, to make their unhappy (2 Chron. xiii. 4-12. xx. 21. 1 Macc. iv. 8-11.) These captives bow down that they might go over them (Isa. lí. harangues had a great share in the success of the day, and 23.), and also to strip them naked, and make them travel in often contributed to the gaining of a battle. The Greek and that condition, exposed to the inclemency of the weather, Roman historians abound with pieces of this kind; but they and, which was worst of all, to the intolerable heat of the are too long, and too elaborate, to be originals. Those only sun. Nor were women, as appears from Isa. iii. 17., exwhich are recorded in the Scriptures appear to be natural: empted from this treatment. To them this was the height the terms in which they are conceived carry certain marks of indignity, as well as of cruelty, especially to those deof truth, which cannot fail to strike the reader: they are short scribed by the prophets, who had indulged themselves in all but lively, moving, and full of pious sentiments. manner of delicacies of living, and all the superfluities of The onset of the battle, after the custom of the orientals, was very violent (Num. xxiii. 24. xxiv. 8, 9.), and was made with a great shout. (Exod. xxxii. 17. 1 Sam. xvii. 20. 52. 2 Chron. xiii. 15. Jer. 1. 42.) The same practice obtained in the age of the Maccabees (1 Macc. iii. 54.), as it does to this day among the Cossacks, Tartars, and Turks. All the wars, in the earliest times, were carried on with great cruelty and ferocity; of which we may see instances in Judg. viii. 7. 16. 2 Kings iii. 27. viii. 12. xv. 16. 2 Chron. XXV. 12. Amos i. 3. 13. and Psal. cxxxvii. 8, 9. Yet the kings of Israel were distinguished for their humanity and lenity towards their enemies. (1 Modern Universal History, vol. xxvi. p. 11. 8vo. edit. • Burder's Oriental Literature, vol. i. p. 301. That the cutting off the thumbs and toes of captured enemies was an ancient mode of treating them, we learn from Elian (Var. Hist. lib. ii. c. 9.), who tells us, that the "Athenians, at the instigation of Cleon, son of should have the thumb cut off from the right hand, so that they might ever Cleænatas, made a decree that all the inhabitants of the island of Egina after be disabled from holding a spear, yet might handle an oar." It was a custom among those Romans who disliked a military life, to cut off their own thumbs, that they might not be capable of serving in the army. Sometimes the parents cut off the thumbs of their children, that they might not be called into the army. According to Sueteaus, a Ronan knight, who had cut off the thumbs of his two sons, to prevent them from being called property. Equitem Romanum, quod duobus filiis adolescentibus, causa detractandi sacramenti, pollices amputasset, ipsum bonaque subjecit hasta. Vit. August. c. 24. Calmet remarks, that the Italian language has preserved a term, poltrone, which signifies one whose thumb is cut off, to designate a soldier destitute of courage. Burder's Oriental Literature, vol. 1. p. 310. his 2 Chron. xxviii. 81 Kings xx. 31. 2 Kings vi. 21-23 to a military life, was, by the order of Augustus, publicly sold, both he and When the victory was decided, the bodies of the slain were interred. (1 Kings xi. 15. 2 Sam. ii. 32. xxi. 14. Ezek. xxxix. 11, 12. 2 Macc. xii. 39.) Sometimes, however, the heads of the slain were cut off, and deposited in heaps at the palace gate (2 Kings x. 7, 8.), as is frequently done to this day in Turkey, and in Persia; and when the conquerors were irritated at the obstinacy with which a city was defended, they refused the rites of burial to the dead, whose bodies were cast out, a prey to carnivorous birds and beasts. This barbarity is feelingly deplored by the Psalmist. (lxxix. 1-3.) And on some occasions the remains of the slain were treated with every mark of indignity. Thus the Philistines cut off the head of Saul, and stripped off his armour, which they put in the house of their deity, Ashtaroth or Astarte; and they fas Antiq. lib. iii. c. 11. 2 In like manner, the Cingalese frequently utter imprecations in the rame of the most malignant of their deities. Callaway's Oriental Observations, p. 20. a Saturnalia, lib. iii. c. 9. Morier's Second Journey, p. 186. Ezek. xxiii. 25. They shall take away thy nose and thine EARS. This cruelty is still practised under some of the despotic governments of the eastern countries. One of the most recent instances is thus related by Messrs. Waddington and Hanbury, during their visit to some parts of Ethiopia :-" Our servants, in their expedition into the village found only fifty piastres apiece, which leads to a thousand unnecessary cruelties, an old woman alive, with her ears off. The pasha buys human ears at and barbarizes the system of warfare; but enables his highness to collect a large stock of ears, which he sends down to his father, as proofs of his instances of this kind of cruelty may be seen in Dodwell's Classical Tour successes." Journal of a Visit, &c. p. 118. (London, 1822. 4to.)-Similar through Greece, vol. i. p. 20. Sir James Malcolm's Hist of Persia, vcl. i. p. 555.; and Burckhardt's Travels in Nubia, p. 35. The Roman emperor Valerian, being through treachery betrayed to Sapor A similar barbarous instance is recorded long after the time of Isaiah. king of Persia, was treated by him as the basest and most abject slave: for the Persian monarch commanded the unhappy Roman to bow himself down, and offer him his back, on which he set his foot, in order to mount his chariot or his horse, whenever he had occasion. (Lactantius, de Morte Persecutorum, c. 5. Aurelius, Victor, Epitome, c. 32.) Bp. Lowth's Isaiah, vol. ii. p. 315. In p. 307. he has given another similar instance ornamental dress; and even whose faces had hardly ever been exposed to the sight of men. This is always mentioned as the hardest part of the lot of captives. Nahum (iii. 5, 6.), denouncing the fate of Nineveh, paints it in very strong colours. Women and children were also exposed to treatment at which humanity shudders. (Zech. xiv. 2. Esth. iii. 13. 2 Kings viii. 12. Psal. cxxxvii. 9. Isa. xiii. 16. 18. 2 Kings xv. 16. Hos. xiii. 16. Amos i. 13.) And whole nations were carried into captivity, and transplanted to distant countries: this was the case with the Jews (2 Kings xxiv. 12-16. Jer. xxxix. 9, 10. xl. 7.), as Jeremiah had predicted (Jer. xx. 5.), and instances of similar conduct are not wanting in the modern history of the East. In some cases, indeed, the conquered nations were merely made tributaries, as the Moabites and Syrians were by David (2 Sam. viii. 4. 6.): but this was considered a great ignominy, and was a source of reproach to the idol deities of the countries which were thus subjected. (2 Kings xix. 12, 13.) Still further to show their absolute superiority, the victorious sovereigns used to change the names of the monarchs whom they subdued. Thus we find the king of Babylon changing the name of Mattaniah into Zedekiah, when he constituted him king of Judah. (2 Kings xxiv. 17.) Archbishop Usher remarks, that the king of Egypt gave to Eliakim the name of Jehoiakim (2 Chron. xxxvi. 4.), thereby to testify that he ascribed his victory over the Babylonians to Jehovah the God of Israel, by whose command, as he pretended (2 Chron. xxxv. 21, 22.), he undertook the expedition. Nebuchadnezzar also ordered his eunuch to change the name of Daniel, who afterwards was called Belteshazzar; and the three companions of Daniel, whose names formerly were Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah, he called Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego. (Dan. i. 7.) It was likewise a custom among the heathens to carry in triumph the images of the gods of such nations as they had vanquished: Isaiah prophesies of Cyrus, that in this manner he would treat the gods of Babylon, when he says, Bel boweth, Nebo stoopeth, their idols were upon the beasts, and upon the cattle, and themselves have gone into captivity. (Isa. xlvi. 1, 2.) Daniel foretells that the gods of the Syrians, with their princes, should be carried captive into Egypt (Dan. xi. 8.); and similar predictions are to be met with in Jeremiah (xlviii. 7.) and in Amos. (i. 15.) XI. On their return home, the VICTORS were received with every demonstration of joy. The women preceded them with instruments of music, singing and dancing. In this manner Miriam and the women of Israel joined in chorus with the men, in the song of victory which Moses composed on occasion of the overthrow of Pharaoh and his Egyptian host in the Red Sea, and which they accompanied with timbrels and dances. (Exod. xv. 1-21.) Thus, also, Jephthah was hailed by his daughter, on his return from discomfiting the children of Ammon (Judg. xi. 34.); and Saul and David were greeted, in like manner, on their return from the defeat of the Philistines. The women came out of all the cities of Israel, singing and dancing, to meet king Saul, with tabrets, with joy, and with instruments of music. And the women answered one another as they played, and said, Saul hath slain his thousands and David his ten thousands! (1 Sam. xviii. 7, 8.) The victorious army of Jehoshaphat, the pious king of Judah, long afterwards, returned, every man of Judah and Jerusalem with the king at their head, to go again to Jerusalem with joy; for the Lord had made them to rejoice over their enemies. And they 1 Bp. Lowth's Isaiah, vol. ii. p. 45. came to Jerusalem with psalteries and harps, and trumpets unto the house of the Lord. (2 Chron. xx. 27, 28.) The same custom still obtains in India and in Turkey. In furthe commemoration of signal victories, it was a common prac tice, both among the ancient heathen nations and the Jews, to hang up the arms that were taken from their enemies in their temples. Thus we find, that the sword with which David cut off Goliath's head, being dedicated to the Lord, was kept as a memorial of his victory, and of the Israelites deliverance, and was deposited in the tabernacle; for we find that when David came to Abimelech at Nob, where the tabernacle was, Abimelech acknowledged it was there, and delivered it to David. (1 Sam. xxi. 8, 9.) For when occa sions of state required it, it was no unusual thing to take such trophies down, and employ them in the public service. Thus when Joash was crowned king of Judah, Jehoiada, the high-priest (who had religiously educated him), delivered to the captains of hundreds spears, and bucklers, and shields, that had been king David's, which were in the house of God. (2 Chron. xxiii. 9.) In the thirteenth century, when the Moguls or Tartars under Zinghis Kahn overran and conquered Asia, "the inhabitants who had submitted to their discretion, were ordered to evacuate their houses, and to assemble in some plain adjacent to the city, where a division was made of the vanquished into three parts. The first class consisted of the soldiers of the garrison, and of the young men capable of bearing arms; and their fate was instantly decided: they were either enlisted ainong the Moguls, or they were massacred on the spot by the troops, who with pointed spears and bended bows had formed a circle round the captive multitude. The second class, composed of the young and beautiful women, of the arti ficers of every rank and profession, and of the more wealthy or honourable citizens, from whom a private ransom might be expected, was distributed in equal or proportionable lots. The remainder, whose life or death was alike useless to the conquerors, were permitted to return to the city, which the mean while had been stripped of its valuable furniture; and a tax was imposed on those wretched inhabitants for the indulgence of breath ng their native air." (Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. iii. pp. 367, 368. 4to., or vol. vi. p. 55. 8vo. edit.) Here we evidently see the distinction made by Jeremiah (xx. 5.) of the strength of the city (that is, the men of war who constitute the strength. of a city or state); its labours or industry (that is, the industrious artisans and mechanics); and all the precious things thereof, all that is valuable in it, or the honourable and respectable members of the community not included in the two former classes; and also those poorer and meaner citizens who, according to Jer. xxxix. 18 and xl. 7., were left in Judæa, but still tributary to the Chaldeans, first under Zedekiah, and next under Gedaliah. Dr. Blayney, on Jer xx. 5. XII. By the law of Moses (Num. xxxi. 19-24.) the whole army that went out to war were to stay without, seven days before they were admitted into the camp, and such as had had their hands in blood, or had touched a dead body, though killed by another, were to be purified on the third and on the seventh day by the water of separation. All spoil of garments, or other things that they had taken, were to be purified in the same manner, or to be washed in running water, as the method was in other cases. All sorts of metals had, besides sprinkling with the water of separation, a purification by fire, and what would not bear the fire passed through the water before it could be applied to use. In the DISTRIBUTION OF THE SPOIL, the king anciently had the tenth part of what was taken. Thus Abraham gave a tenth to Melchisedec king of Salem. (Gen. xiv. 20. Heb. vii. 4.) And if any article of peculiar beauty or value were found among the spoil, it seems to have been reserved for the commander-in-chief. To this Deborah alludes in her triumphal ode. (Judg. v. 30.) After the establishment of the monarchy, the rabbinical writers say (but upon what authority it is impossible now to ascertain) that the king had all the gold, silver, and other precious articles, besides one half of the rest of the spoil, which was divided between him and the people. In the case of the Midianitish war (Num. xxxi. 27.), the whole of the spoil was, by divine appointment, divided into two parts: the army that won the victory had one, and those that stayed at home had the other, because it was a common cause in which they engaged, and the rest were as ready to fight as those that went out to battle. This division was by a special direction, but was not the rule in after-ages; for, after the general had taken what he pleased for himself, the rest was divided among the soldiers, as well those who kept the baggage, or were disabled by wounds or weariness, a those who were engaged in the fight, but the people had no share; and this was ordained, as a statute to be observed throughout their generations (1 Sam. xxx. 24.): but in the time of the Maccabees the Jewish army thought fit to recede from the strictness of this military law, for when they had obtained a victory over Nicanor, under the conduct of Judas, they divided among themselves many spoils, and made the maimed, orphans, widows, yea, and the aged also, equal in spoils with themselves. (2 Macc. viii. 28. 30.): In the Midi anitish war, after the distribution of the spoils among the the service of the priesthood, and the Levitical ministry. army and the people, there was another division made for (Num. xxxi. 28-30.) The priests, out of the share that fell to the army, were allotted one out of five hundred of all women and children, and cattle that were taken; and the Levites, from the part that fell to the people, received one out of fifty, so that the priest had just a tenth part of what was allowed to the Levites, as they had a tenth part of the Levitical tithes, which was paid them for their constant support: but whether this was the practice in future wars is uncertain. Sometimes all the spoils were, by divine appointment, ordered to be destroyed; and there is an instance in the siege of Jericho, when all the silver and the gold (except the gold and the silver of their images, which were to be consumed utterly), and vessels of brass and iron, were devoted to God, and appropriated to his service. They were to be brought into the treasury which was in the tabernacle, after they were purified by making them pass through the fire according to the law; the Jews conceive that these spoils Forbes's Oriental Memoirs, vol. 295. Lady Mary Wortley Mou. tague's Letters, vol p 197 (called in the Scripture the accursed thing on the account of their being devoted with a curse upon him who should take them for his own use) were given to God, because the city was taken upon the Sabbath-day. But in succeeding ages, it appears to be an established rule that the spoil was to be divided among the army actually engaged in battle; those who had the charge of the baggage (as already noticed) being considered entitled to an equal share with the rest. (1 Sam. xxx. 24.) Besides a share of the spoil and the honours of a triumph, various military rewards were bestowed on those warriors who had pre-eminently distinguished themselves. Thus Saul promised to confer great riches on the man who should conquer Goliath, and further to give his daughter in marriage nissi, that is, The LORD is my banner. (Exod. xvii. 15.) Un der the influence of similar devout affections, David conse crated the sword and other arms of Goliath in the tabernacle, and subsequently deposited in the sacred treasury the rich spoils won in battle, as Samuel and Saul had done before him (1 Chron. xxvi. 26-28.), and as several of his pious successors on the throne of Judah also did. Thus they gratefully acknowledged that they were indebted to the Lord of Hosts alone for all their strength and victories. I. SECTION II. PLINE AND TRIUMPHS OF THE ROMANS. Divisions of the Roman army, and Roman military officers mentioned in the New Testament.-II. Allusions to the armour of the Romans.-III. To their military discipline.Strict subordination.-Rewards to soldiers who had distinguished themselves.—IV. Allusions to the Roman triumphs. to him, and to exempt his father's house from all taxes in ALLUSIONS IN THE NEW TESTAMENT TO THE MILITARY DISCIIsrael. (1 Sam. xvii. 25.) How reluctantly the jealous monarch fulfilled his promise is well known. David promised the command in chief of all his forces to him who should first mount the walls of Jerusalem, and expel the Jebusites out of the city (2 Sam. v. 8. 1 Chron. xi. 6.); which honour was acquired by Joab. In the rebellion of Absalom against David, Joab replied to a man who told him that the prince was suspended in an oak,-Why didst thou not smite him to the ground, and I would have given thee ten shekels of silver and a girdle? (2 Sam. xviii. 11.) Jephthah was constituted head and captain over the Israelites beyond Jordan, for delirering them from the oppression of the Ammonites. (Judg. i. 11. compared with xii. 7.) From 2 Sam. xxiii. 8-39. it appears that the heroes or 'mighty men," during the reign of David, were thirty-seven in number, including Joab, who was commander-in-chief of all his forces. These warriors were divided into three classes, the first and second of which consisted, each, of three men, Jashobeam, Eleazar, and Shammah; Abishai, Benaiah, and Asahel; and the third class was composed of the remaining thirty, of whom Asahel appears to have been the head. Such is the list according to 2 Sam. xxiii.; but in 1 Chron. xi. 10 -47. the list is more numerous, and differs considerably from the preceding. The most probable solution of these variations is, that the first list contains the worthies who lived in the former part of David's reign, and that it underwent various changes in the course of his government of the kingdom of Israel. At the head of all these "mighty men' was Jashobeam the son of Hachmoni (1 Chron. xi. 11.), who from his office in 2 Sam. xxiii. 8. (Hebr. and marginal rendering) is termed Joseb-Bassebet, the Tachmonite, head of the three; and whose military appellation was Adino-He-Ezni (the lifting up or striking with a spear) because he lifted his spear against, or encountered, three hundred soldiers However extraordinary it may seem, we may here clearly perceive a distinct order of knighthood, similar to our modern orders, and presenting the same honorary degrees, and of which Jashobeam, according to modern parlance, was the grand-master. An institution of this kind was in every respect adapted to the reign, the character, and the policy of up at once. David. After the return of the Jewish armies to their several homes, their military dress was laid aside. The militia, which been raised for the occasion, were disbanded; their warlike instruments, with the exception of such as were private property, were delivered up as the property of the state, until some future war should call them forth; and the soldiers themselves returned (like Cincinnatus) to the plough, and the other avocations of private life. To this suspension of their arms, the prophet Ezekiel alludes (xxvii. 10, 11.) when he says, that they of Persia, and of Lud, and of Phut, and of Arvud, were in the Tyrian army as men of war, and hanged their shields upon the walls of Tyre. To the same custom also the bridegroom refers in the sacred idyls of Solomon (Song iv. 4.), when he compares the neck of his bride to the tower of David builded for an armoury, whereon there hang a thousand bucklers, all shields of mighty men. I. Ar the time the evangelists and apostles wrote, the Romans had extended their empire almost to the utmost boundaries of the then known world, principally by their unparal leled military discipline and heroic valour. Judæa was at this time subject to their sway, and their troops were stationed in different parts of that country. The Roman army was composed of Legions (Any coves), each of which was divided into ten cohorts, each cohort into three maniples, and each maniple (apa) into two centuries. The number of men in a legion was different at different times. But besides the cohorts which were formed into legions, there were certain others separate and distinct from any legion; such were the Cohortes Urbana, and Prætoriæ, &c. Such appears to have been the Italian Band ( Iran) mentioned in Acts x. 1., which was in attendance on the Roman governor, who at that time was residing at Casarea. It was probably called the Italian cohort, because most of the soldiers belonging to it were Italians, and also to distinguish it from the other troops which were drawn from Syria and the adjacent regions. The Italian legion was not in existence at this time. Of the same description also was the Augustan Band or Cohort (Acts xxvi. 1.), (upa ΣSAσTH), which, most probably, derived its name from Sebaste, the capital of Samaria. The commanding officer of the Prætorian Cohorts at Rome (a body of troops instituted by Augus tus to guard his person, and to whom the care of the city was subsequently committed) was termed Præfectus Prætorio. This last officer was the Captain of the Guard (Erparoπdapxns), to whose custody Paul was committed, it being a part of his office to take the charge of accused persons. (Acts xxviii. 16.) The commanding officer of an ordinary cohort was called Tribunus Cohortis, if it was composed of Roman citizens; or Præfectus Cohortis, if composed of auxiliary troops. The officer intended by both these words is in the New Testament termed Xoxos, or Captain of a Thousand, most probably because each tribune had under him ten centuries of troops. This was the officer who commanded the legion of soldiers that garrisoned the tower of Antonia, which overlooked the temple at Jerusalem, in the porticoes of which a company kept guard (UT) to prevent any tumult at the great festivals. Claudius Lysias was the tribune or Roman captain of this fort, who rescued Paul from the tumultuous attack of the murderous Jews. (Acts xxi. 31. xxii. 34. xxiii. 26.) Under the command of the tribune was the centurion (Kupov or 'Exaтevтafxes), who, as his name implies, had one hundred men under him.4 The Roman infantry were divided into three principal classes, the Hastati, the Principes, and the Triarii, each of which was composed of thirty manipuli or companies, and each manipulus contained two centuries or hundreds of men: over every company were placed two centurions, who, however, were very far from being equal in rank and honour, though XIII. It does not certainly appear from the Sacred Writings, that the Hebrews were accustomed to erect TROPHIES or monuments for commemorating their victories. In 1 Sam. xv. 12. Saul is said to have set him up a place on Mount Car-possessing the same office. The Triarii and Principes were mel; which some expositors understand to be a column, or other monument, while others imagine it to have been simply a hand, pointing out the place where he had obtained his decisive victory over the Amalekites. Far more devout was the conduct of Moses, who, after discomfiting Amalek, rected an altar to the Lord, with this inscription, Jehovah- Kuinoel on Acts x. 1. and xxvii. 1. Coquerel, Biographie Sacrée, tom. ii. p. 167. esteem, d the most honourable, and had their centurions elected Biscoe on the Acts, vol. i. pp. 328-332. Doddridge on Acts x. 1. and Ant. Jud. lib. xx. c. 4. § 3. Adam's Roman Antiquiti viii. 8, 9. besought the aid of the compassionate Redeemer, appears to have been of this last order. He was a man under authority, that is, of the Principes or Triarii, and had none under him but the hundred men, who appear to have been in a state of the strictest military subordination, as well as of loving subjection to him. I am, said the centurion, a man under authority, having soldiers under me, and I say to this man, Go, and he goeth, and to another, Come, and he cometh; and to my slave (To Scuro μcu), Do this, and he doeth it. The application of his argument, addressed to Christ, seems to be this:-If I, who am a person subject to the control of others, yet have some so completely subject to myself, that I can say to one, Come, and he cometh, &c. how much more then canst thou accomplish whatsoever thou willest, being under no control, and having all things under thy command?1 The sa or Spearmen, mentioned in Acts xxiii. 23., were soldiers, carrying spears or lances in their right hand, whose duty it was, not only to attend as guards upon their sovereign or commander, but also to guard prisoners, who were bound by a chain to their right hand. The Σare (in Latin, Spiculatores or Speculatores, from the spiculum, a javelin or spear which they carried) were a kind of soldiers who formed the body-guard of princes. Among other duties of these guards, was that of putting condemned persons to death.3 II. The allusions in the New Testament to the military discipline, arinour, battles, sieges, and military honours of the Greeks, and especially of the Romans, are very numerous; and the sacred writers have derived from them metaphors and expressions of singular propriety, elegance, and energy, for animating Christians to fortitude against temptations, and to constancy in the profession of their holy faith under all persecutions, and also for stimulating them to persevere unto the end, that they may receive those final honours and that immortal crown which await victorious piety. In the following very striking and beautiful passage of St. Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians (vi. 11-17.), the various parts of the panoply-armour of the heavy troops among the Greeks and Romans (those who had to sustain the rudest assaults) "are distinctly enumerated, and beautifully applied to those moral and spiritual weapons with which the believer ought to be fortified. Put on the whole armour of God, that ye may be able to stand against the wiles of the devil. For we wrestle not against flesh and blood, but against principalities, against powers, against the rulers of the darkness of this world, against spiritual wickedness in high places. Wherefore, take unto you the whole armour of God, that ye may be able to withstand in the evil day, and having done all to stand. Stand, therefore, having your loins girt about with truth, and having on the breast-plate of righteousness: and your feet shod with the preparation of the gospel of peace: above all, taking the shield of faith, wherewith you shall be able to quench all the fiery darts 1 Dr. A. Clarke, on Matt. viii. 9. 2 Valpy's Gr. Test. vol. iii. p. 255. Robinson's Gr. Lex. to the New Test. in voce. 5 Eph. vi. 13. Axxvia xxlepynσava. This verb frequently signifies to despatch a foe, totally to vanquish and subdue an adversary. So it should be translated in this place. Ov avloxpix xxlspy: Whom he despatched with his own hand. Dion. Halicarn. tom. i. p. 99. Oxon. 1704. Πανία πολεμία κατεργασάμενοι : Having quelled all hostilities. Idem, p. 385. Μεθ' ως ηδη πολλους πολεμίους κατειργασος : By which you have vanquished many enemies. Polyæni Stratag. p. 421. Lugd. 1589. Ispas 25μlous aidep xxlesрyacaμnv. Idem, p. 599. Casauben. Taupay ay pro TRIS KEPTI MOVIS pyμ: He despatched a wild bull only with his hands. Appian. vol. i. p. 201. Amst. 1670. See also pp. 5. 291. 410. 531. Tollii. The word here used by the apostle has also this signification in Dion Cassius, Josephus, and Philo. Ev, after all, or besides all: it never signifies above all. Aulos di ZAKITES IT i diabava: After all, he himself passed with difficulty. Plutarch, Cæsar, p. 1311. edit. Gr. Stephan. Ayovla @pelor Thy oxλegga, Mel TAULA TOUS #2119, 181 2201 SE TO EXCUOGOPOD: First, he led up the pharanx, next the cavalry, after all the baggage. Polybius, p. 664. Casaubon. Επι πασι δε Ασσες εννέα και τεσσαρακοντα και μηνας δύο : After all, Assis reigned forty-nine years and two months. Josephus contra Apion. p. 445. flavercamp. The shield here intended (Supeos) is the scutum, or large oblong shield of the Romans, which was made of wood covered with hides, and derived its name from its resemblance to a door (Jupz). As faith is that Christian grace, by which all the others are preserved and rendered active, it is here properly represented under the figure of a shield; which covered and protected the whole body; and enables the believer to quench-to intercept, blunt, and extinguish, as on a shield-the fiery darts of the wicked one, that is, all those evil thoughts, and strong injections, as they are termed, which inflame the passions of the unrenewed, and excite the Bou to acts of transgression. 1 Βέλη σεπυρωμένα. These dreadful weapons were frequently employed by the ancients. Пupope Tožuul. Appian. p. 329. uppopers DiσTois Thucydides, tom. ii. lib. xi. p. 202. Glasg. Τοιους, αγρις δαιμον, έχεις πυροενίας οίστους. Oppian. Kuvay. lib. ii. ver. 425. Jccording to Ammianus Marcelinus (lib. xxiii. c. 4.) these fiery darts of the wicked, and take the helmet of salvation, and the sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God." Having thus equipped the spiritual soldier with the divine panoply, the apostle proceeds to show him how he is to use it: he therefore subjoins-Praying always with all prayer and supplication in the Spirit, and watching thereunto with all perseverance. The Greeks and other ancient nations, we have already observed, offered up prayers before they went into the battle. Alluding to this, Saint Paul adds the exhortation to believers, praying always, at all seasons, and on all occasions, with all prayer (more correctly, supplication for what is good) and deprecation of evil; and watching thereuntobeing always on their guard lest their spiritual enemies should surprise them with all perseverance, being always intent on their object, and never losing sight of their danger or of their interest.10 "In the Epistle to the Romans, the apostle, exhorting men to renounce those sins to which they had been long accustomed, and to enter upon a new and holy life, uses a beautiful similitude, borrowed from the custom of soldiers throwing off their ordinary habit in order to put on a suit of armour. The night is far spent, the day is at hand: let us therefore CAST OFF the works of darkness, and let us PUT ON the ARMOUR of light." (Rom. xiii. 12.) In another passage he represents, by a striking simile, in what manner the apostles were fortified against the opposition with which they were called to conflict in this world. By the word of truth, by the power of God, by the ARMOUR of righteousness ON THE RIGHT HAND AND ON THE LEFT." (2 Cor. vi. 7.)12 III. It is well known that the strictest subordination and obedience were required of every Roman soldier. An allusion to this occurs in the speech of the centurion to Jesus Christ (Matt. viii. 8, 9.) which has already been noticed above, and which is greatly illustrated by two striking passages in Arrian's Discourses of Epictetus :-speaking of the Saturnalia, he says,--" We agreed to play Agamemnon and Achilles. He who is appointed for Agamemnon says to me, Go to Achilles, and force away Briseis.'-I GO.-COME.'-1 come."13 Again, discoursing on all things being under the divine inspection, he says," When God commands the plants to blossom, they bear blossoms. When he commands them to bear seed, they bear seed. When he commands them to bring forth fruit, they put forth their fruit. When he commands them to ripen, they grow ripe. When he commands them to fade and shed their leaves, and to remain inactive, and involved (or contracted) within themselves, they thus remain and are inactive."14 Nor is the military subordination adverted to by the centurion, without its (almost verbal) parallel in modern times in the East:-Kirtee-Ranah, a captive Ghoorkha chief, who was marching to the British head-quarters,-on being interrogated concerning the motives that induced him to quit his native land and enter into the service of the Rajah of Nepal, -replied in the following very impressive manner:-"My master, the rajah, sent me: He says to his people,—to one, 'Go consisted of a hollowed reed, to the lower part of which, under the point or barb, was fastened a round receptacle, made of iron, for combustible materials, so that such an arrow had the form of a distaff. This was filled with burning naphtha; and when the arrow was shot from a slack bow (for if discharged from a tight bow the fire went out), it struck the enemies' ranks and remained infixed, the flame consuming whatever it met with; water poured on it increased its violence; there were no other means to extinguish it but by throwing earth upon it. Similar darts or arrows, which were twined round with tar and pitch, and set fire to, are described by Livy (lib. xxi. c. 8.), as having been made use of by the inhabitants of the city of Saguntum, when besieged by the Romans. On the tops of the ancient helmets, as well as on those now in use, is a crest or ridge, furnished with ornaments; some of the ancient helmets had emblematic figures, and it is probable that Saint Paul, who in 1 Thess. v. 8. terms the helmet the hope of salvation, refers to such helmets as had on them the embler ic representation of hope. His meaning therefore is, that as the helmet defended the head from deadly blows, so the hope of salvation (of conquering every adversary, and of surmounting every difficulty, through Christ strengthening the Christian), built on the promises of God, will ward off, or preserve him from, the fatal effects of al temptations, from worldly terrors and evils, so that they shall not disorder the imagination or pervert the judgment, or cause men to desert the path of duty, to their final destruction. Dr. Harwood's Introd. to the New Test. vol. ii. pp. 49, 50. 1. Drs. Chandler, Macknight, and A. Clarke, on Eph. vi. 11-17. In the fifth of Bishop Horne's Discourses (Works, vol. v. pp. 60-72.) the reader will find an admirable and animated exposition of the Christian armour. 11 Αποθώμεία τα έργα του σκολους και ενδυσωμένα τα όπλα του φωτός. Fulgentiaque induit arma. Virgil, Eneid. ii. ver. 747. Ilpalov ToVUV δυσωμεν, ανάγκη γαρ τους μελλοντας ὁπλιζεσθαι, γυμνουσίαι προτερον. Lu cian, tom. ii. p. 256. edit. Grævii. 12 Harwood's Introd. vol. ii. p. 52. 13 Arrian's Epictetus, book i. c. 25. § 1. (Mr. Carter's translation, vol. i, p. 113.) 14 Ibid. book i. c. 14. Raphelii Annotationes in Sacram Scripturam, es Herodoto, &c. vol. i. pp 242, 243. By a very striking metaphor, taken from the pay of a soldier, he represents the wages with which SIN rewards those who fight under her banners, to be certain and inevitable death. The WAGES of SIN is DEATH. "Our Lord in that wonderful prophecy of the destruction of Jerusalem accurately represents the Roman manner of besieging and taking towns,-which was by investing the place, digging a deep trench round it, and encompassing it with a strong wall, to prevent escape, and consume the inhabitants by famine. The days shall come upon thee, that thine enemies shall cast a TRENCH about thee, and COMPASS thee ROUND, and keep thee in on every side: and shall lay thee even with the ground, and thy children within thee, and they shall not leave in thee one stone upon another; because thou knowest not the time of thy visitation. (Luke xx. 42, 43.) you to Gurwhal;' to another, 'Go you to Cashmire, or to any distant part.'- My Lord, thy slave OBEYS; it is DONE.' None ever inquires into the reason of an order of the rajah." In his Epistle to Timothy, who appears to have been greatly dejected and dispirited by the opposition he met with, St. Paul animates him to fortitude, and among other directions encourages him to ENDURE HARDSHIP as a good soldier of Jesus Christ (2 Tim. ii. 3.)—and what hardship a Roman soldier supported, the following passage in Josephus will abundantly evince. It is the most striking commentary upon this text that ever was written. "When they march out of their encampment, they advance in silence and in great decorum, each man keeping his proper rank just as in battle. Their infantry are armed with breastplates and helmets, and they carry a sword on each side. The sword they wear on their left side is by far the longest, for that on the right is "In expatiating upon the difficulties and distresses with not above a span's length. That select body of infantry, which the first preachers of the Gospel conflicted, the aposwhich forms part of the general's life-guards, is armed with tle Paul in a strong figure compares their situation to that lances and bucklers, but the rest of the phalanx have a spear of an army pent up in a narrow place-annoyed on every side and a long shield, besides which they bear a saw and a-but not totally precluded from an escape-their condition to basket, a spade and a hatchet; they also carry with them a the last degree perplexed and wretched, yet not altogether cord, a sickle, a chain, and provisions for three days! so that desperate and forlorn. (2 Cor. iv. 8.) We are troubled on a Roman foot-soldier is but very little different from a BEAST every side, yet not distressed: we are perplexed, but not in OF BURDEN."2 despair." According to a military custom, established in an early Once more, 66 as among the other military honours and reperiod of the commonwealth, every Roman soldier chose his compenses, rich and splendid crowns,10 frequently of gold, favourite comrade; and by that tie of friendship all were were publicly bestowed upon the illustrious conqueror, and mutually bound to share every danger with their fellows.3 upon every man who, acting worthy the Roman name, had Saint Paul, alluding to this practice, terms Epaphroditus his distinguished himself by his valour and his virtue-in allucompanion in labour and fellow-soldier. (Phil. ii. 25.) Fur- sion to this custom how beautiful and striking are those many ther, "it is well known that the Roman soldiers were not passages of Sacred Scripture, which represent Jesus Christ, allowed to marry; by this prohibition the Roman providence, before angels and the whole assembled world, acknowledg as much as possible, studying to keep their military disem- ing and applauding distinguished piety, and publicly conferbarrassed from the cares and distractions of secular life. ring crowns of immortal glory upon persevering and victorious To this law the apostle refers; no one that warreth, ENTAN- holiness. Be thou faithful unto death: I will give thee a GLETH HIMSELF WITH THE AFFAIRS OF THIS LIFE; that he CROWN of life. (Rev. ii. 10.) Blessed is the man that endumay please him who hath chosen him to be a soldier. (2 Tim.reth temptation; for when he is tried, he shall receive the CROWN ii. 4.) of life (James i. 12.), which the Lord hath promised to them "The names of those who died or were cashiered for mis- that love him. When the chief shepherd shall appear, ye shall conduct were expunged from the muster-roll. To this cus-receive a CROWN of glory that fadeth not away. (1 Pet. v. 4.) tom, probably, the following text alludes; in this view the I have fought a good fight, I have finished my course, I have similitude is very striking, I will not BLOT OUT his NAME out kept the faith: Henceforth there is laid up for me a CROWN of of the BOOK of life. (Rev. iii. 5.)5 righteousness, which the Lord the righteous judge shall give me "The triumphant advancement of the Christian religion at that day; and not to ME only, but unto ALL them also that through the world, St. Paul compares to the irresistible pro-love his appearing." (2 Tim. iv. 8.) gress of a victorious army, before which every fortified place, and all opposition, how formidable soever, yielded and fell. (2 Cor. x. 4.) For the weapons of our warfare are not carnal, but mighty through God to the pulling down of strongholds; casting down imaginations, and every thing that exalteth itself against the knowledge of God, and bringing into captivity every thought to the obedience of Christ. Having spoiled principalities and powers, he made a show of them openly, triumphing over them. 1 Fraser's Notes on the Hills at the Foot of the Himala Mountains, p. 226. London, 1820. 4to. 2 Josephus, De Bell. Jud. lib. iii. c. 5. §5. Harwood's Introduction, vol. ii. p. 52. The following particulars, collected from Roman authors, will confirm and illustrate the statements of Josephus: "The load which a Roman soldier carried is almost incredible (Virg, Georg. iii. 346. Horat. Sat. ii. 10.); victuals (cibaria) for fifteen days (Cic. Tusc. ii. 15, 16.), sometimes more (Li Epit. 57.), usually corn, as being lighter, sometimes drest food (coctu: bus, Liv. iii. 27.), utensils (utensilia, ib. 42.), a saw, a basket, a | IV. But the highest military honour that could be conferred in the Roman state was a triumph, or solemn procession, with which a victorious general and his army advanced through the city to the capitol; and which was the most grand and magnificent spectacle ever beheld in ancient times. "After a decisive battle gained, and the complete conquest of a kingdom, the most illustrious captives in war, kings, princes, and nobles, with their wives and children, to the perpetual infamy of this people, were, with the last dishonour and ignominy, led in fetters before the general's chariot, through the public streets of Rome: scaffolds being every where erected, the streets and public places crowded, and this barbarous and uncivilized nation all the while in the highest excess of joy, and in the full fruition of a spetacle that was a reproach to humanity. Nor was only the " Sovereign of large and opulent kingdoms, the magnanimous hero2 who had fought valiantly for his country and her liber mattock, an axe, a hook, and leather thong, a chain, a pot, &c. (Liv. xxviii. 45. Horat. Epod. ix. 13.), stakes usually three or four, sometimes twelve (Liv. iii. 27.); the whole amounting to sirty pounds weight, besides arins: Rom. vi. 23. Oviz, the pay of a soldier. O T OTP2002, for a Reman soldier consi.ered these not as a burden, but as a part of him- xloveyxaνles apgrupov: Bringing money to pay the army. Dion. Halicarn. self (arma membra milites ducebant. Cic. Tusc. ii. 16.)."-Adain's Romantom. i. p. 568. Oxon. Axbwv iz te xxi 7' xxx down ids Ty oтpalım. Antiquities, p. 377. p. 587. Livy, lib. ix. c. 39. Tacitus, Hist. lib. i. c. 18.-Murphy's note, in his translation of Tacitus, vol. v. p. 356. 8vo. edit. • Τους δε στρατευομένοις, επειδή γυναίκας ουκ εδύναντο εκ γε των νόμων EZ. Dion. Cassius, lib. lx. p. 961. Reimar. Tacitus, speaking of some Roman veterans, says, Neque conjugiis suscipiendis neque alendis liberis sueti. Taciti Annales, tom. ii. lib. xiv. cap. 27. p. 210. Dublin. It is, however, possible that this allusion may be drawn from civil life, in which case the meaning of the above cited passage will be this:-As in states and cities, those who obtained freedom and fellowship were enrolled in the public registers, which enrolment was their title to the privileges of citizens; so the King of Heaven, of the New Jerusalem, engages to preserve in his register and enrolment, in the book of life, the names of those who, like the faithful members of the church of Sardis, in a corrupted and supine society, shall preserve allegiance, and a faithful discharge of their Christian duties. He will own them as his fellow-citizens, before men and angels. Compare Matt. xx. 32. Luke xii. 8. See also Psal. Ixix. 28. Ezek. xiii. 9. Exod. xxxiii. 33. Dan. xii. 1. Mal. iii. 16. Luke x. 20. Dr. Woodhouse on the Apocalypse, p. 84. • SUDATA TO D, exceeding powerful. Moses is called σTSIOS TW JIW, exceeding beautiful. Acts viii. 20. See the conquest of the Gospel and its triumph over idolatry in a very striking manner represented by Eusebius, lib. x. p. 468. Cantal. Harwood's Introd. vol. ii. pp. 53-58. 10 Στεφάνους επί ταις νικείς συχνούς-χρυσους ελαξε: He received several crowns of gold on account of his victories. Dion Cassius, lib. xlii. p. 331. edit. Reimar. Vid. etiam notas Fabricii ad loc. Tois de dy vauxpalnσxσ και στέφανον ελαίας ιδωκε: Το those who had conquered in the naval engagement he gave crowns of olive. Lib. xlix. p. 597. See also pp. 537. 580. So also Josephus says that Titus gave crowns of gold to those who had distinguished themselves in the siege of Jerusalem; vous smalibв* purous. Bell. Jud. lib. vii. p. 401. See also p. 412. Havercamp. Behind the children and their train walked Persens himself [the captive king of Macedon], and wearing sandals of the fashion of his country. He had the appearance of a man overwhelmed with terror, and whose reason almost staggered under the load of his misfortunes. He was followed by a great number of friends and favourites, whose countenances were oppressed with sorrow; and who, by fixing their weeping eyes continually upon their prince, testified to the spectators that it was his lot which they lamented, and that they were regardless of their own. tarchi Vitæ, in Æmil. tom. ii. pp. 156, 187. edit. Briani. Plu 19 Thus, at the conclusion of the second Punic war, the Numidian and Carthaginian captive generals were led in triumph. Appian. tom i. p. 58 edit. Tollit. Amst. 1670. Several kings, princes, and generals were also led in Pompey's triumph. Appian. tom. I. p. 417. |