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this fatal effect of the solar heat the psalmist alludes (Psal. cxxi. 6.), as he also does to the effect of the lunar rays, which in Arabia (as well as in Egypt) are singularly injurious to the eyes of those who sleep in the open air. "The moon here really strikes and affects the sight when you sleep exposed to it much more than the sun: indeed, the sight of a person, who should sleep with his face exposed at night, would soon be utterly impaired or destroyed."

royal psalmist alludes. (Psal. xxxii. 4.) If, at this season, a single spark falls upon the grass, a conflagration immediate ly ensues, especially if there should be any briers or thorns, low shrubs or woods contiguous. (Psal. lxxxiii. 14. Isa. ix. 18. x. 17, 18. Jer. xxi. 14. Compare also Exod. xxii. 6. and Joel i. 19, 20.) The face of the country becomes entirely changed; the fields, so lately clothed with the richest verdure and adorned with the loveliest flowers, are converted From the time of harvest, that is, from the middle of April into a brown and arid wilderness; the grass withereth, the to the middle of September, it neither rains nor thunders. flower fadeth (Isa. xl. 6, 7.); the fountains and rivulet's are (Prov. xxvi. 1. 1 Sam. xii. 17.) During the latter part of dried up; and the soil becomes so hard as to exhibit large April, or about the middle of the harvest, the morning cloud fissures or clefts. These effects are accelerated if the east is seen early in the morning, which disappears as the sun wind blow for a few days; which, being usually dry and ascends above the horizon. (Hos. vi. 4. xíîì. 3.) These light producing a blight, becomes fatal to the corn and vines (Job fleecy clouds are without water (pas arufp); and to them xv. 2. Gen. xli. 6. 23. Ezek. xvii. 10. xix. 12. Hos. xiii. 15. the apostle Jude (verse 12.) compares the false teachers, who Jonah iv. 8. Psal. ciii. 15, 16.); and is particularly daneven then began to contaminate the church of Christ. In gerous to navigators in the Mediterranean Sea. This is Deut. xxxii. 2. the doctrine of Jehovah is compared to the alluded to in Psla. xlviii. 7. and Ezek. xxvii. 26. The people rain, and clouds are the instruments by which rain is dis- of the East generally term every wind an east wind, that tilled upon the earth. In arid or parched countries, the very blows between the east and north and the east and south. appearance of a cloud is delightful, because it is a token of The Euroclydon, which caused the wreck of the vessel in refreshing showers; but when sudden winds arise, and dis- which Paul was sailing to Rome, was one of these tempesperse these clouds, the hope of the husbandman and shepherd tuous east winds, anus Tupomos, that drove every thing before is cut off. The false teachers alluded to, are represented as it. (Acts xxvii. 14.) Such winds are common in the Mediclouds; they have the form and office of teachers of right-terranean to this day, where they are called Levanters, the eousness, and from such appearances pure doctrine may term Levant meaning that country which lies at the eastern naturally be expected. But these are clouds without water; extremity of that sea. they distil no refreshing showers, because they contain none; and they are carried about by their passion, as those light and fleecy clouds in question are carried by the winds.2

From the Jewish month Sivan, through the entire months of Tammuz, Ab, and the former part of Elul, corresponding with our months of May, June, July, and August, not a single cloud is to be seen; but during the night, the earth is moistened by a copious dew, which in the sacred volume is frequently made a symbol of the divine goodness. (Compare Gen. xxvii. 28. and xlix. 25. where the blessing from above is equivalent with dew, Deut. xxxii. 2. xxxiii. 13. Job xxix. 19. Mie. v. 7.) In Arabia Petræa the dews are so heavy, as to wet to the skin those who are exposed to them: but as soon as the sun arises, and the atmosphere becomes a little warmed, the mists are quickly dispersed, and the abundant moisture, which the dews had communicated to the sands, is entirely evaporated. What a forcible description is this of the transiently good impressions, felt by many, to which the prophet Hosea alludes! (vi. 4.) Other references to the refreshing nature of the dews of Palestine occur in Psal. cxxxiii. 3. and Hos. xiv. 5.3 These dews fall, as in other countries, very fast as well as very suddenly, upon every blade of grass and every spot of earth: whence an active and expeditious soldiery is in 2 Sam. xvii. 12. by a beautiful figure compared to dew. But, however copious the dews are, they nourish only the more robust or hardy plants; and as the season of heat advances, the grass withers, the flowers fade, every green herb is dried up by the roots and dies, unless watered by the rivulets or by the labour of man. To this appearance of the fields, during an eastern summer, the stance near Tiberias. The heat at the time was so unusally great, that as many died by that as by the sword. After the battle, in their return to their former encampment, a certain ecclesiastic, of some distinction in the church and in the army, not being able to bear the vehemence of the heat, was carried in a litter, but expired under Mount Tabor.-Harmer's ObserCarne's Letters from the East, p. 77. A nearly similar account is given by Mr. R. R. Madden, who travelled in the East, between the years 1824 and 1827. Travels in Turkey, &c. vol. ii. pp. 197, 198. The deadly influence of the moon is equally felt in the East and West Indies. Thus, in Bengal, meat hung up, if exposed to moonlight, will not take the salt, but taints and spoils speedily: whereas the same kind of meat, if kept from the moonlight, will take salt, and keep good for some time. (Extract of a letter from India, in the Christian Observer for 1808, p. 754.) And at De merara the moon strikes (similarly to the sun) with a coup-de-lune; so that people walk out at night with umbrellas or paralunes. Such indeed are the effects of the lunar rays upon fish, as to make it part from the bones. (From information communicated by the Rev. Mr. Elliott, missionary at Demerara.)

vations, vol. i. p. 4.

Dr. A. Clarke, on Jude 12.

Shaw's Travels, vol. ii. p. 325. The very heavy dews which fall in the Holy Land, are noticed by almost every one who has travelled in that country. We shall adduce the testimonies of two or three. Maundrell, travel Img near Mount Hermon, in the year 1697, says, "We were instructed by experience, what the Psalmist means by the dew of Hermon (Psal. cxxxiii. 3.), our tents being as wet with it, as if it had rained all night." (Travels from Aleppo to Jerusalem, p. 77.) Dr. E. D. Clarke, when on his journey from Aboukir to Rosetta, in 1801, says, "We had a tent allotted to us for the night; it was double lined; yet so copious are the dews of Egypt" (the climate of which country is similar to that of the Holy Land), "after sun. set that the water ran copiously down the tent pole." (Travels, vol. iii. p. 365. 8vo.) Mr. Carne says, "The dews had fallen heavily for some nights, and the clothes that covered us were quite wet in the morning." Letters rom the East, p. 178.

Harmer's Observations, vol. i. p. 6. VOL. II. D

III. In consequence of the paucity of showers in the East, water is an article of great importance to the inhabitants. Hence, in Lot's estimation, it was a principal recommendation of the plain of Jordan that it was well watered every where (Gen. xiii. 10.); and the same advantage continued in later ages to be enjoyed by the Israelites, whose country was intersected by numerous brooks and streams; whence it is not more emphatically than beautifully described as a land of brooks of water, of fountains and depths, that spring out of valleys and hills. And the same preference is given to this day by the Eelauts (a Tartar tribe occupying a district in the northern part of the Persian empire), who carry their flocks to the highest parts of the mountains, where the bless ings of pasturage and of good water are to be found in abundance. The knowledge of this circumstance will, perhaps, impart new force to the promises made to the Gentiles by the evangelical prophet. Their pastures shall be in all high places, they shall not hunger nor thirst; neither shall the sun or heat smite them; for he that hath mercy on them shall lead them, even by the springs of water shall he guide them. (Isa. xlix. 9— 11.) See also Rev. vii. 16, 17.

Although RIVERS are frequently mentioned in the Sacred Writings, yet, strictly speaking, the only river in the Holy Land is the Jordan, which is sometimes designated in the Scripture as the river without any addition; as also is the Nile (Gen. xli. 1. Exod. i. 22. ii. 5. lv. 9. vii. 18. and viii. 3. 9. 11.), and, occasionally, the Euphrates (as in Jer. ii. 18.); in these cases, the tenor of the discourse must determine which is the river actually intended by the sacred writers. The name of river is also given to inconsiderable streams and rivulets, as to the Kishon (Judges iv. 7. and v. 21.) and the Arnon. (Deut. iii. 16.)8

1. The principal river which waters Palestine is the JORDAN or Yar-Dan, i. e. the river of Dan, so called because it takes its rise in the vicinity of the little city of Dan. Its true source is in two fountains at Paneas (a city better known by its subsequent name of Cæsarea Philippi), at the foot of Anti-Libanus; its apparent source flows from beneath a cave at the foot of a precipice, in the sides of which are several niches with Greek inscriptions. During several hours of its course, it continues to be a small and insignificant

"The very affecting images of Scripture, which compare the shortliving existence of man to the decay of the vegetable creation, are scarcely understood in this country. The verdure is perpetual in England. It is difficult to discover a time when it can be said, 'the grass withereth.' But, let the traveller visit the beautiful plain of Smyrna, or any other part of the East, in the month of May, and revisit it towards the end of June, and he will perceive the force and beauty of these allusions. In May, an appearance of fresh verdure and of rich luxuriance every where meets the eye; the face of nature is adorned with a carpet of flowers and herbage, of the most elegant kind. But a month or six weeks subsequently, how changed is the entire scene! The beauty is gone; the grass is with. ered; the flower is faded; a brown and dusty desert has taken place of a delicious garden. It is doubtless to this rapid transformation of nature that the Scriptures compare the fate of man." Hartley's Researches in Greece, p. 237. Shaw's Travels in Barbary, &c. vol. ii. pp. 127-133. Morier's Second Journey through Persia, p. 121.

• In a few instances, the sea is called a river, as in Hab iii. 8. where the Red Sea is intended.

⚫ Capt. Irby's and Mangle's Travels in Egypt, &c. pp. 287–289.

rivulet. It flows due south through the centre of the coun- ! try, intersecting the lake Merom and the sea or lake of Galilee, and (it is said) without mingling with its waters; and it loses itself in the lake Asphaltites or the Dead Sea, into which it rolls a considerable volume of deep water, with such rapidity as to prevent a strong, active, and expert swimmer from swimming across it. The course of the Jordan is about one hundred miles; its breadth and depth are various. Dr. Shaw computed it to be about thirty yards broad, and three yards or nine feet in depth; and states that it discharges daily into the Dead Sea about 6,090,000 tuns of water.2 Viscount Chateaubriand (who travelled nearly a century after him) found the Jordan to be six or seven feet deep close to the shore, and about fifty paces in breadth. The late count Volney asserts it to be scarcely sixty paces wide at its embouchure. Messrs. Banks and Buckingham, who crossed it in January, 1816, pretty nearly at the same ford over which the Israelites passed on their first entering the promised land, found the stream extremely rapid; and as it flowed at that part over a bed of pebbles, its otherwise turbid waters were tolerably clear, as well as pure and sweet to the taste. It is here fordable, being not more than four feet deep, with a rapid current.4

2. The ARNON, which descends from the mountains of the same name, and discharges itself into the Dead Sea. 3. The SIHOR (the Belus of ancient geographers, at pre sent called the Kardanah), has its source about four miles to the east of the head of the river Kishon. It waters the plains of Acre and Esdraelon, and falls into the sea at the gulph of Keilah.

4. The brook JABBOK takes its rise in the same mountains, and falls into the river Jordan. It is a rapid stream, flowing over a rocky bed; its waters are clear, and agreeable to the taste, and its banks are very thickly wooded with oleande and plane trees, wild olives, wild almonds, and numerous other trees. By the Arabs it is now termed Nahr-el-Zerkah, or the river of Kerkah, from a neighbouring station or village of that name."

5. The KANAH, or Brook of Reeds, springs from the mountains of Judah, but only flows during the winter, and it falls into the Mediterranean Sea near Cæsarea: it formerly separated the tribe of Ephraim from that of Manasseh. (Josh. xvii. 8, 9.)

6. The brook BESOR (1 Sam. xxx. 9.) falls into the same sea between Gaza and Rhinocorura.

7. The KISHON, now called the Moukattoua, issues from the mountains of Carmel, at the foot of which it forms two streams; one flows eastward into the sea of Galilee, and the other, taking a westerly course through the plain of Jezreel or Esdraelon, discharges itself into the Mediterranean Sea, at a short distance to the south of Acro or Acre. This is the stream noticed in 1 Kings xviii. 40.: when swollen by heavy rains it is impassable.

Anciently the Jordan overflowed its banks about the time of barley harvest (Josh. iii. 15. iv. 18. 1 Chron. xii. 15. Jer. xlix. 19.), or the feast of the passover; when, the snows being dissolved on the mountains, the torrents discharged themselves into its channel with great impetuosity. When visited by Mr. Maundrell, at the beginning of the last century, he could discern no sign or probability of such inundations, though so late as the 30th of March; and so far was 8. The KEDRON, KIDRON, or CEDRON, as it is variously the river from overflowing, that it ran almost two yards termed (2 Sam. xv. 23. 1 Kings xv. 13. 2 Kings xxiii. 6. below the brink of its channel. It may be said to have two 12. 2 Chron. xxix. 16. Jer. xxxi. 40. John xviii. 1.), runs banks, the first, that of the river in its natural state; the in the valley of Jehoshaphat, eastward of Jerusalem, between second, that of its overflowings. After descending the outer- that city and the Mount of Olives. Except during the winmost bank, the traveller proceeds about a furlong upon a level ter, or after heavy rains, its channel is generally dry, but, strand, before he comes to the immediate bank of the river. when swollen by torrents, it flows with great impetuosity;s This second bank is now (as it anciently was) so beset with its waters are said to become dark and turbid, probably bebushes, reeds, tamarisks, willows, oleanders, and other cause it collects the waste of the adjacent hills; and, like shrubs and trees, which form an asylum for various wild other brooks in cities, it is contaminated with the filth, of animals, that no water is perceptible until the traveller has which it is the receptacle and common sewer. The blood made his way through them. In this thicket several kinds and offal of the victims sacrificed in the temple are said, in of wild beasts used formerly to conceal themselves, until the later times, to have been carried off by a drain into the Keswelling of the river drove them from their coverts. To this dron.10 As no mention is made of bridges in Palestine, it is fact the prophet Jeremiah alludes, when he compares the probable that the inhabitants forded the rivers and brooks impatience of Edom and Babylon under the divine judg-wherever it was practicable, (in the same manner as persons ments, to the coming up of a lion from the swellings of Jordan, of both sexes do to this day in Bengal), which is alluded to (Jer. xlix. 19.) On the level strand above noticed, it proba- in Isa. xlvii. 2. bly was, that John the Baptist stood, and pointed to the stones of which it was composed, when he exclaimed, I say unto you, that God is able of THESE STONES to raise up children unto Abraham and turning to the second bank, which was overgrown with various shrubs and trees that had been suffered to grow wild for ages, he added, and now also the 1. The SEA OF GALILEE (So called from its situation on the axe is laid unto the root of THE TREES: therefore every tree, eastern borders of that division of Palestine), through which which bringeth not forth good FRUIT, is hewn down and cast the Jordan flows, was anciently called the Sea of Chinnereth into the fire. (Matt. iii. 9, 10.) The passage of this deep and (Num. xxxiv. 11.) or Chinneroth (Josh. xii. 3.), from its rapid river by the Israelites, at the most unfavourable season, vicinity to the town of that name; afterwards Gennesar (1 when augmented by the dissolution of the winter snows, was Macc. xi. 67.), and in the time of Jesus Christ Genesareth or more manifestly miraculous, if possible, than that of the Red Gennesareth (Luke v. 1.), from the neighbouring land of the Sea; because here was no natural agency whatever employed; same name (Matt. xiv. 34. Mark vi. 53.); and also the Sea no mighty winds to sweep a passage as in the former case; of Tiberias (John vi. 1. xxi. 1.), from the contiguous city of no reflux in the tide on which minute philosophers might Tiberias. This capacious lake, almost equal in the grandeur fasten to depreciate the miracle. It seems, therefore, to have of its appearance to that of Geneva, spreads its transparent been providentially designed, to silence cavils respecting the waters over all the lower territory, extending from the northformer: it was done at noonday, in the presence of the neigh-east to the south-west. The waters of the northern part of bouring inhabitants: and it struck terror into the kings of this lake abound with fish: this circumstance marks the the Amorites and Canaanites westward of the river, whose propriety of our Lord's parable of the net cast into the sea hearts melted, neither was there any spirit in them any more,(Matt. xiii. 47, 48.), which was delivered by him from a because of the children of Israel. (Josh. v. 1.) The place vessel near the shore. The fish are said to be most delicious. where the Israelites thus miraculously passed this river, There is not much variety, but the best sort is the most com is supposed to be the fords of Jordan mentioned in Judg.mon; it is a species of bream, equal to the finest perch. It is iii. 26. remarkable, that there is not a single boat of any description

The other remarkable streams or rivulets of Palestine are the following:

1 Carne's Recollections of Travels in the East, p. 38. London, 1830. 8vo. 2 Shaw's Travels, vol. ii. pp. 156, 157. Buckingham's Travels, p. 315. Three Weeks in Palestine, p. 90. Maundrell's Journey, p. 110. Dr. Macmichael's Travels from Moscow to Constantinople, in the years 1817, 1818, p. 191. (Lond. 1819. 4to.) The Jordan is annually frequented by many thousand pilgrims, chiefly of the Greek church, under the protection of the Moosilliin, or Turkish governor of Jerusalem, and a strong military escort. Ibid. pp. 191, 192. Richardson's Travels, vol. ii. p. 337. Irby's and Mangles' Travels, pp. 329, 330.

Of the LAKES mentioned in the Scriptures, three are particularly worthy of notice; that of Galilee or Gennesareth, the Lake Merom, and the Lake of Sodom, both of which are termed seas, agreeably to the Hebrew phraseology, which gives the name of sea to any large body of water.

• Shaw's Travels, vol. ii. p. 33.
Buckingham's Travels, p. 325.

Carne's Letters, p. 250. Richter's Pilgrimages in the East. in 18151816. (binet of Foreign Voyages, vol. i. pp. 159, 160. London, 1825.) In like manner the rivers of Cyprus (which island lies to the north-west of the Holy Land) are dry during the summer months, and are swollen into torrents by sudden rains. Dr. Clarke's Travels, vol. iv. p. 75. (Works, vol. i. p. 80.) 10 Lightfoot's Chorographical Century, on Matthew, chap. 38. fine.

its vicinity, who, like the earliest ones, call their water a sea, and reckon This appellation is retained by the modern inhabitants, who reside in it and the Dead Sea to the south of them to be the two largest known except the great ocean." Buckingham's Travels, p. 471.

on the lake at present; and the fish are caught, partly by the fishermen going into the water, up to their waist, and throwing in a hand net, and partly with casting nets from the beach a method which must yield a very small quantity, compared to what they would get with boats.'

Pliny states this lake to be sixteen miles in length by six miles in breadth. Josephus, whose intimate knowledge of his country gives his descriptions a high claim to attention, says that its breadth is forty furlongs, and its length one hundred and forty. Its waters are sweet and very agreeable for drinking, for they are finer than the thick waters of other fens. The lake is also pure, and on every side ends directly at the shores, and at the sand: it is also of a temperate nature, when drawn up, and softer than river or fountain water: and it is so cold, that the people of the place cannot warm it by setting it in the sun, in the hottest season of the year. There are several kinds of fish in it, different both to the taste and sight from those elsewhere. It is divided into two parts by the river Jordan."2

The fidelity of Josephus's description is attested by two fearned and acute modern travellers. Mr. Buckingham, who beheld it in 1816, observes that "all these features are drawn with an accuracy that could only have been attained by one resident in the country. The size is still nearly the same, the borders of the lake still end, at the beach or the sands, at the feet of the mountains which environ it. Its waters are still as sweet and temperate as ever, and the lake abounds with great numbers of fish of various sizes and kinds. The appearance of the lake as seen from Capernaum," Mr. Buckingham states, "is still grand; its greatest length runs nearly north and south from twelve to fifteen miles; and its breadth seems to be, in general, from six to nine miles. The barren aspect of the mountains on each side, and the total absence of wood, give, however, a cast of dulness to the picture; and this is increased to melancholy by the dead calm of its waters and the silence which reigns throughout its whole extent, where not a boat or vessel of any kind is to be found."3

waters are no longer bitter, this lake derives no small interest from the illustrations and allusions so often made to it by the prophets.6

3. The LAKE or SEA OF SODOM, or the DEAD SEA, has been celebrated not only by the sacred writers, but also by Josephus, and several profane authors. It was anciently called in the Scriptures the Sea of the Plain (Deut. iii. 17 iv. 49.), being situated in a valley, with a plain lying to the south of it, where once flourished the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, with the other cities of the plain ;—the Salt Sea (Deut. iii. 17. Josh. xv. 5.) from the extremely saline, and bitter, taste of its waters; the Salt Sea eastward (Num. xxxiv. 3.)—and the East Sea (Ezek. xlvii. 18. Joel ii. 20.), from its situation relatively to Judæa. By Josephus and other writers it was "alled the Lake Asphaltites, from the abundance of bitumen found in it; and by Jerome, the Dead Sea, that is, the Bituminous Lake, from ancient traditions, erroneously though generally received, that no living creature can exist in its stagnant and hydro-sulphuretted waters, which, though they look remarkably clear and pure, are in the highest degree salt, bitter, and nauseous in the extreme, and of such a degree of specific gravity as will enable a man to float on their surface without motion. The acrid saltness of its waters is much greater than that of the sea; and the land, which surrounds this lake, being equally impregnated with that saltness, refuses to produce any plants except a few stunted thorns, which wear the brown garb of the desert. To this circumstance Moses alludes in Deut. xxix. 23.-The whole land thereof is brimstone and salt." The air itself, which is by evaporation loaded with it, and which is impregnated with the sulphureous and bituminous vapours, is fatal to vegetation: hence arises the deadly aspect which reigns around the lake.10 Here formerly stood the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, which, with three other cities of the plain, were consumed by fire from heaven; to this destruction there are numerous allusions in the Scriptures, as displaying most signally the certainty and suddenness of the divine anger which sooner or later overtakes the impenitently wicked. Viewing this sea (which has never been navigated since those cities were engulphed) from the spot where the Jordan discharges its waters into it, this body of water takes of any place called Daphne in this vicinity, and Daphne near Antioch was far distant from the waters of Merom. Palestina, tom. i. p. 263. Carne's Recollections of the East, p. 39.

Josephus de Bell. Jud. lib. iv. c. 8. § 4.; Pliny, Hist. Nat. lib. v. c. 16.; Tacitus, Hist. lib. v. c. 6.; Justin. lib. xxxvi. c. 3.; Strabo, lib. xvi. pp. 1087 1088. edit. Oxon.

Irby's and Mangles' Travels, p. 330. Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature, and the Arts, vol. viii. p. 164. An analysis of the water of the Dead Sea (a phial of which had been brought to England by Mr. Gordon of Clunie, at the request of the late Sir Joseph Banks), conducted by Dr. Marcet, gave the following results:-This water is perfectly transparent, and does not deposit any crystals on standing in close vessels.—Its taste is peculiarly bitter, saline, and pungent. The application of tests or re. agents proves that it contains the muriatic and sulphuric acids. There is no alumnina in it, nor does it appear to be saturated with marine salt of muriate of soda.-On summing up the contents of 150 grains of the water, they were found to hold in solution the following substances, and in the under-mentioned proportions:

Dr. Clarke, by whom this lake was visited a few years before Mr. Buckingham's arrival, describes it as longer and finer than our Cumberland and Westmorland lakes, although it yields in majesty to the stupendous features of Loch Lomond in Scotland: like our Windermere, the lake of Gennesareth is often greatly agitated by winds. (Matt. viii. 2327.) A strong current marks the passage of the Jordan through the middle of this lake; and when this is opposed by contrary winds, which blow here with the force of a hurricane from the south-east, sweeping into the lake from the mountains, a boisterous sea is instantly raised: this the small vessels of the country are ill qualified to resist. "The wind," says he, "rendered its surface rough, and called to mind the situation of our Saviour's disciples; when, in one of the small vessels, which traversed these waters, they were tossed in a storm, and saw Jesus in the fourth watch of the night walking to them upon the waves." (Matt. xiv. 2426.) These agitations, however, do not last for any length of time.-Its broad and extended surface, covering the bottom of a profound valley, environed by lofty and precipitous eminences (excepting only the narrow entrance and outlets at the Jordan at each extremity), added to the impression of a certain reverential awe under which every Christian pilgrim approaches it, give it a character of dignity unparalfeled by any similar scenery. When not agitated by tem- water would be:pests, the water is stated to be as clear as the purest crystal, sweet, cool, and most refreshing to the taste.

2. The WATERS OF MEROM, mentioned in Josh. xi. 5. 7., are generally supposed to be the lake, afterwards called Samochonitis, which lies between the head of the river Jordan and the Sea of Tiberias. Its modern name is Houle.. According to Josephus, it is thirty furlongs broad, and sixty furlongs in length; and its marshes extend to the place called Daphne, where the Jordan issues from it. Though its

Travels in Egypt, &c. by Captains Irby and Mangles, p. 295. Madden's Travels in Turkey, &c. vol. ii. p. 312. See also Carne's Letters from the East, P. 254-363. Richter's Pilgrimages in the East. (Cabinet of Foreign Voyages, vol. i. p. 157.)

Josephus de Bell. Jud. lib. iii. c. 10. § 7. Pritii Introd. in Nov. Test. p. 503. Buckingham's Travels, pp. 470, 471. Mr. Jowett's estimate nearly coincides with that of Mr. Buckingham (Christian Researches in Syria, p. 175.), as also does that of Mr. Rae Wilson. (Travels in the Holy Land, vol. ii. pp. 13, 14, 3d edition.)

Dr. Clarke's Travels, vol. iv. pp. 209, 210. 225. Buckingham's Travels, pp. 468. 471. De Bell. Jud. lib. v. c. 1. §1. Reland conjectures that, for Daphne, n this passage of Josephus, we ought to read Dan, as there is no mention

Muriate of lime.....
Muriate of magnesia........
Muriate of soda..

Salts.
5,83 grains

Acid.
3,89 grains.

15.37

15,54

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8,61

7,15

Selenite.......

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And, consequently, the proportions of these salts in 100 grains of the

Muriate of lime.....

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Muriale of magnesia.................
Muriate of soda.............. 10,360
Sulphate of lime...............

0,054

24,580

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, for 1807, part ii. pp. 298-312. Another analysis, made by the eminent French chemist, M. Gay-Lussac in 1819, gave nearly similar results. (See Quarterly Journal of Science, &c. vol. viii. p. 165.) "Hence it appears that the Dead Sea water now contains about one-fourth of its weight of salt supposed in a state of perfect desiccation; or, if they be desiccated at the temperature of 180 degrees on Fahrenheit's scale, they will amount to forty-one per cent. of the water. If any person wish for a stronger confirmation of the Scripture account of the origin of the Dead Sea than this furnishes, we can only pity the miserable state of incredulity to which he is reduced, and commit him to the influences of that Power which can cause the 'wil derness to blossom as the rose,' and from 'stones raise up children unto Abraham.'" Eclectic Review for 1809, vol. v. part i. p. 134.

In the vicinity of this sea Captains Irby and Mangles collected lumps of nitre and fine sulphur, from the size of a nutmeg to that of a small hen's egg, which had been brought down from the surrounding cliffs by the rain. Travels in Egypt, &c. p. 453.

19 Volney's Travels in Egypt and Syria, vol. i. p. 288. 8vo. 3d edit.; Turner's Tour in the Levant, vol. iì. p. 227.

a south-easterly direction visible for ten or fifteen miles, when it disappears in a curve towards the east. Its surface is generally unruffled, from the hollow of the basin in which it lies, scarcely admitting the free passage necessary for a strong breeze; it is, however, for the same reason, subject to whirlwinds or squalls of short duration. The expanse of water at this point has been supposed not to exceed five or six miles; though the mountains, which skirt each side of the valley of the Dead Sea, are apparently separated by a distance of eight miles. These mountains present to the eye of the spectator granite, and those other rocks, which (according to the Wernerian system of geology) characterize the oldest or primitive formation. It is probable that this region, at a remote period, was the theatre of immense volcanoes, the effects of which may still be traced along the banks of the Lower Jordan, and more especially on the lake itself, on the shores of which bitumen, lava, and pumice stones continue to be thrown by the waves. As the Dead Sea advances towards the south, it evidently increases in breadth. Pliny states the total length to be one hundred miles, and its greatest breadth twenty-five. But Dr. Shaw and other modern travellers, who appear to have ascertained its dimensions with accuracy, have estimated its length to be about seventy-two English miles, and its greatest breadth to be nearly nineteen. A profound silence, awful as death, hangs over the lake: not a ripple is to be seen on its surface; and "its desolate though majestic features are well suited to the tales related concerning it by the inhabitants of the country, who all speak of it with terror."6

4. The GREAT SEA, mentioned in Num. xxxiv. 6. and eisewhere in the Sacred Volume, is the Mediterranean Sea, so called by way of eminence: in Exod. xxii. 31. it is called the Sea of the Philistines, because their country bordered on its shores.

5. The RED SEA, So often noticed, is now known by the appellation of the Arabian Gulph.7

Besides the preceding rivers and lakes, the Scriptures mention several FOUNTAINS and WELLS. In a country where these are of rare occurrence, it is no wonder that they should anciently have given rise to strife and contention. (Gen. xxi. 25. xxvi. 20.) The most remarkable of these fountains and wells are the Fountain or Pool of Siloam, and Jacob's Well. 1. SILOAM was a fountain under the walls of Jerusalem, east, between the city and the brook Kedron: it is supposed to be the same as the fountain En-Rogel, or the Fuller's Fountain (Josh. xv. 7. and xviii. 16. 2 Sam. xvii. 17. and 1 Kings i. 9.), and also the Gihon. (1 Kings i. 33.) The spring issues from a rock, and runs in a silent stream, according to the testimony of Isaiah. (viii. 6.) The modern

1 Buckingham's Travels in Palestine, p. 293. The mountains on the Judæan side are lower than those of the Arabian, and also of a lighter colour; the latter chain, at its southern extremity, is said to consist of dark granite, and of various colours. The hills, which branch off from the western end, are composed entirely of white chalk bitumen abounds most on the opposite shore. There is no outlet to this lake, though the Jordan flows into it, as did formerly the Kedron, and the Arnon to the south. It is not known that there has been any visible increase or decrease of its waters. Some have supposed that it finds a subterraneous passage to the Mediterranean, or that there is a con. siderable auction in the plain which forms its western boundary." (Carne's Letters, pp. 317, 318.) But the uniform level of its waters is sufficiently accounted for by the quantity which is evaporated. (See Dr. Shaw's Travels, vol. ii. pp. 157, 158.)

Volney's Travels in Syria, vol. i. pp. 281, 282. Travels of Ali Bey (M. Badhia), vol. ii. p. 263. Buckingham's Travels, pp. 443. 448. Russell's Palestine, p. 412.

Jolliffe's Letters from Palestine, p. 118.

s Shaw's Travels, vol. i. p. 157. Mr. Carne, however, who visited the Dead Sea in 1825, estimates its length to be about sixty miles, and its general breadth eight. On his arrival at its shore, where the waters lay like lead, there was not a breath of wind. "Whoever," says this intelligent traveller, "has seen the Dead Sea, will ever after have its aspect impressed upon his memory; it is, in truth, a gloomy and fearful spectacle. The precipices, in general, descend abruptly into the lake, and on account of their height it is seldom agitated by the winds. Its shores are not visited by any footstep, save that of the wild Arab, and he holds it in superstitious dread. No unpleasant effluvia are perceptible round it, and birds are seen occa sionally flying across....A few inches beneath the surface of the mud are found those black sulphureous stones, out of which crosses are made, and sold to the pilgrims. The water has an abominable taste, in which that of salt predominates; and we observed incrustations of salt on the Burface of some of the rocks." Letters from the East, pp. 316, 317.

For an account and refutation of the ancient traditions concerning the Dead Sea, see Dr. Clarke's Travels, vol. iv. pp. 400-406. 8vo. A compre. hensive digest of nearly all that has been written concerning this sea will be found in the Modern Traveller, Palestine, pp. 201–224.

infra.

See the article RED SEA, in the Historical and Geographical Index, When Capt. Light descended in 1814, into the beautiful plain of Sephora, or Sephoury, at a short distance from Nazareth, he saw in the centre a band of herdsmen, armed with muskets, watering their cattle in a large stone reservoir. With them he was obliged to have an altercation before they would permit him to water his horse, without paying for the privilege. Travels, p. 196. Three Weeks in Palestine, p. 8.

descent to this fountain is by fifteen or sixteen steps. Being defended from the sun, it is deliciously cool, and clear as crystal: it has a kind of ebb and flood, sometimes discharging its current like the fountain of Vaucluse; at others, retaining and scarcely suffering it to run at all. The pool or rather the two pools of the same name are quite close to the spring. They are still used for washing linen as formerly." Anciently, its waters were conducted into the two large reservoirs or pools, already noticed in page 21. Modern travellers relate that people still bathe their eyes with the waters of this fountain, in memory of the miracle performed on the man who had been born blind. At this fountain, the ancient Jews were wont to draw water with great solemnity on the last day of the Feast of Tabernacles: an account of this ceremony will be found in Part III. chap. iv. § vii. of this volume.

2. JACOB'S WELL or fountain is situated at a small distance from Sichem or Sechem, also called Sychar, and at present Napolose: it was the residence of Jacob before his sons slew the Shechemites. It has been visited by pilgrims of all ages, but especially by Christians, to whom it has become an object of veneration from the memorable discourse of our Saviour with the woman of Samaria.10 (John iv. 5-30.) In consequence of the scarcity of water in the East, travellers are careful to stop as often as possible near some river, fountain, or well: this will probably account for Jacob's halting with his family at the ford Jabbok (Gen. xxxii. 22.); for the Israelites assembling their forces near the fountains of Jezreel (1 Sam. xxix. 1.), as the celebrated Moslem warrior Saladin afterwards did; and for David's men that were unable to march with him, waiting for him by the brook Besor. (1 Sam. xxx. 21.) It is not improbable that the ancient wells, mentioned in Gen. xvi. 14. xxiv. 20. and Exod. ii. 15., were furnished with some conveniences for drawing water to refresh the fainting traveller, and with troughs or other contrivances for supplying cattle with water, similar to those which are to this day found in Persia, Arabia, and other countries in the East.2 In Eccl. xii. 6. Solomon alludes to a wheel as being employed for the purpose of raising water.13 Great precautions were taken, anciently as well as in modern times, to prevent the moving sands from choking up their wells, by placing a stone over the mouth (Gen. xxix. 2-8.) after the requisite supply had been drawn up; or by locking them up, which Sir John Chardin thinks was done at Laban's well, of which Rachel, perhaps, kept the key. (Gen. xxix. 6. 9.) The stopping up of wells is to this day an act of hostility in the East, as it was in the days of Abraham and Isaac (Gen. xxvi. 15-18.), and of Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxxii. 3, 4.), and also long after among several ancient nations. Thus, the Scythians, in their retreat before the Persians, under Darius, and Arsaces ordered the wells to be broken and filled up, filled up the wells and fountains which lay in their way:14 upon the advance of Antiochus from Ecbatana; while the latter, who was fully aware of their consequence to himselt and his army, sent a detachment of a thousand horse, to drive away the Persian cavalry who were employed upon this ser

• Chateaubriand's Travels, vol. ii. pp. 34. 36. Mr. Buckingham, who visited the fountain of Siloam in 1816, describes it as a dirty, little brook; which even in the rainy season is said to be an insignificant muddy stream. Travels in Palestine, p. 188. See also Richardson's Travels, vol. ii. p. 357. 10 Dr. Clarke's Travels, vol. iv. pp. 278-280. Some learned men have conjectured that Jacob's well was only a cistern or reservoir for rain water; but the whole of the surrounding scenery confirms the evange list's narrative, and the antiquity of the well. Such cisterns, indeed, are common in the oriental deserts to this day; and it is perhaps to conve niences of this kind, made or renewed by the devout Israelites, in the valley of Baca, to facilitate their going up to Jerusalem, that the Psalmis refers (lxxxiv. 6, 7.) where he speaks of going from strength to strength till they appeared in Zion. Harmer's Observations, vol. ii. p. 184. To prevent accidents by the owners of such cisterns leaving them uncovered, Moses enacted various regulations. See Exod. xxi. 33, 34.

11 Harmer's Observations, vol. iii. p. 401. The Christian kings of Jerusa lem, in the close of the twelfth century, also assembled their forces at fountain between Nazareth and Sephoris. Ibid.

19 In the villages of Ethiopia, Messrs. Waddington and Hanbury frequently met with huts by the road-side, containing large jars of water for travellers When there is no hut, the jar is generally placed under a pine tree. Journal of a Visit to Ethiopia, p. 35.

13 In Smyrna and many other places in the East, a large wheel is fixed over the mouth of a well in a vertical position to this wheel a number of pitchers is attached in such a nanner, that by means of its revolution, which effected by a horse, they are continually descending and filling, and ascending and discharging themselves. (Hartley's Researches in Greece, pp. 235, 236.) In the Russian Government of Iver, Dr. Henderson was struck with the number of wells which he saw, over each of which is buiit a large wooden apparatus, consisting chiefly of a windlass, with a wheel about six feet in diameter, which is turned round by the hand, and thus the water is drawn up in a bucket. He is of opinion that it is obviously to a machine of this kind that Solomon refers in his highly figurative picture of old age. Biblical Researches, p. 32.

14 Herodotus, lib. iv. c. 120. tom. I. p. 292. Oxon. ¡909

northern boundary of the Holy Land. Anciently, it abounded with odoriferous trees of various descriptions, from which the most curious gums and balsams were extracted.

vice. Wells and fountains were also lurking places of rob- | vicinity of Damascus eastward, and fortaing the extreine bers and assassins, and enemies were accustomed to lie in ambush at them as they are now. To this Deborah alludes in her song. (Judg. v. 11) The Crusaders suffered much from the Saracens, who lay in ambush for them in like manner; and Dr. Shaw mentions a beautiful well in Barbary, the water of which is received into a large basin for the accommodation of travellers; and which is called Shrub we krub, that is, Drink and away, from the danger which they incur of meeting with assassins there.

In our own time it is the custom for the oriental women, particularly those who are unmarried, to fetch water from the wells, in the mornings and evenings; at which times they go forth adorned with their trinkets. This will account for Rebecca's fetching water (Gen. xxiv. 15.), and will further prove that there was no impropriety in Abraham's servant presenting her with more valuable jewels than those she had before on her hands. (Gen. xxiv. 22—47.)3

3. As the cities were mostly erected on eminences, and (as we have already seen) the rains fall only in the spring and autumn, the inhabitants of Palestine constructed CISTERNS, or reservoirs for water, both in cities and in private houses. Allusions to the latter occur in 2 Kings xvii. 31. Prov. v. 15. and Isa. xxxvi. 16. Uzziah king of Judah cut out many cisterns (2 Chron. xxvi. 10.) for the supply of his cattle. Cisterns of very large dimensions exist, at this day, in Palestine. In the vicinity of Bethlehem, in particular, there are three capacious pools, known by the name of SOLOMON'S POOLS. They are in the shape of a long square, covered with a thick coat of plaster in the inside, and supported by abutments: the workmanship throughout, like every thing Jewish, is more remarkable for strength than beauty. They are situated at the south end of a small valley; and, from the slope of the ground, the one falls considerably below the level of the other. That on the west is nearest the source of the spring, and is the smallest, being about four hundred and eighty feet long; the second is about six hundred feet, and the third, about six hundred and sixty feet long. The breadth of them all is nearly the same, about two hundred and seventy feet. The fountains communicate freely with each other, and are capable of holding a great quantity of water; which they discharge into a small aqueduct, that conveys it to Jerusalem. Both fountains and aqueduct are said to have been made by Solomon the son and successor of David, and the antiquity of their appearance bears testimony to the truth of the statement.4

IV. Palestine is a mountainous country, especially that part of it which is situated between the Mediterranean or Great Sea and the river Jordan. The principal MOUNTAINS are those of Lebanon, Carmel, Tabor, the mountains of Israel, and of Gilead: those which are either within the limits, or in the immediate vicinity of Jerusalem, have been noticed in p. 19. supra.

1. LEBANON, by the Greeks and Latins termed Libanus, is a long chain of limestone mountains, on the summits of which fossilized antediluvian fishes were formerly discovered;5 extending from the neighbourhood of Sidon on the west to the 1 Polybius, lib. x. c. 29. tom. iii. p. 253. edit. Schweighaeuser. Harmer's Observations, vol. iii. p. 409. Shaw's Travels, vol. i. p. 63. 8vo. Burckhardt's Travels in Syria, &c. p. 627. Captains Irby and Mangles stopped at some wells of fresh water, where they found a great assem. blage of camels and many Arabs, who appeared to stop all passengers. They entered into a violent dispute with the conductors of those gentlemen and presently levied a contribution on the Arabs who accompanied them. A similar fate would certainly have awaited them, had it not been for the appearance of their arms; as the chief followed them all the way to El Arish, surveying their baggage "with the most thieving inquisitive ness." Travels in Egypt, &c. pp. 173, 174.

Harmer's Observations, vol. 1. pp. 198, 199. vol. ii. pp. 125. 184. 193. vol. iii. p. 401. "In the valley of Nazareth," says Dr. Clarke, appeared one of those fountains, which, from time immemorial, have been the halting place of cara vans, and sometimes the scene of contention and bloodshed. The women of Nazareth were passing to and from the town, with pitchers upon their heads. We stopped to view the group of camels with their drivers, who were there reposing; and calling to mind the manners of the most remote ages, we renewed the solicitations of Abraham's servant unto Rebecca, by the well of Nahor. Gen. xxiv. 17." (Travels, vol. iv. p. 165.) A similar custom was observed by the same traveller in the Isle of Syros. (vol. vi. pp 152, 153.) And by Mr. Emerson. (Letters from the Egean, vol. ii. p. 45.) At Cana Mr. Rae Wilson, (Travels in the Holy Land, vol. ii. pp. 3, 4.), and also Mr. Carne, observed several of the women bearing stone watering-pots on their heads as they returned from the well. (Letters from the East, p. 253.) In Bengal it is the universal practice for the women to go to pools and rivers to fetch water. Companies of four, six, ten, or more, may be seen in every town, daily, going to fetch water, with the pitchers resting on their siles. (Ward's View of the History, &c. of the Hindoos, vol. ii. p. 316.) In the island of Goza, which is eighteen miles from Malta, Mr. Jowett says, that the women, as they go to the wells for water, carry their empty pitchers horizontally on their heads, with the mouth looking backwards. Missionary Register for 1818, p. 297.) May not this illustrate Jer. xiv. 3.1 4 Dr. Richardson's Travels, vol. ii. pp. 379, 380.

See the authorities in Reland's Palæstina, tom. i. p. 321.

It is divided into two principal ridges or ranges parallel to each other, the most westerly of which is known by the name of LIBANUS, and the opposite or eastern ridge by the appellation of Anti-Libanus: but the Hebrews do not make this distinction of names, denominating both summits by the common name of Lebanon. These mountains may be seen from a very considerable distance, and some part or other of them is covered with snow throughout the year. On the loftiest summit of all, Dr. Clarke observed the snow lying, not in patches, as he had seen it during the summer upon the tops of very elevated mountains, but investing all the higher part with that perfect white and smooth velvet-like appearance which snow only exhibits when it is very deep-a striking spectacle in such a climate, where the beholder, seeking protection from a burning sun, almost considers the firmament to be on fire. These mountains are by no means barren, but are almost all well cultivated, and well peopled: their summits are, in many parts, level, and form extensive plains, in which are sown corn, and all kinds of pulse. They are watered by numerous cold flowing springs, rivulets, and streams of excellent water, which diffuse on all sides a freshness and fertility even in the most elevated regions. To these Solomon has a beautiful allusion. (Song iv. 15.) Vineyards, and plantations of mulberry, olive, and fig trees are also cultivated on terraces formed by walls, which support the earth from being washed away by the rains from the sides of the acclivities. The soil of the declivities and of the hollows that occur between them is most excellent, and produces abundance of corn, oil, and wine; which is as much celebrated in the East in the present day as it was in the time of the prophet Hosea, who particularly alludes to it. (Hos. xiv. 7.) Lebanon was anciently celebrated for its stately cedars, which are now less numerous than in former times;9 they grow among the snow near the highest part of the mountain, and are remarkable, as well for their age and size, as for the frequent allusions made to them in the Scriptures. (See 1 Kings iv. 33. Psal. lxxx. 10. and xcii. 12, &c. &c.) These trees form a little grove by themselves, as if planted by art, and are seated in a hollow amid rocky eminences all around them, and form a small wood, at the foot of the ridge, which forms the highest peak of Lebanon. The number of the largest trees has varied at different times. To omit the varying numbers stated by the earlier travellers :-the Rev. Henry Maundrell, who travelled in this region in 1696, reckoned sixteen of the largest size, one of which he measured, and found it to be twelve yards and six inches in girth, and yet sound; and thirty-seven yards in the spread of the boughs. The celebrated oriental traveller, Mr. Burckhardt, who traversed Mount Libanus in 1810, counted eleven or twelve of the oldest and best looking trees, twenty-five very large ones, about fifty of middling size, and more than three hundred smaller and young ones. M. Buckingham, in 1816, computed them to be about two hundred in number, twenty of which were very large. 10 In 1817-18 Captains Irby and Mangles stated that there might be about fifty of them, not one of which had much merit either for dimensions or beauty; the largest among them appearing to be the junction of four or five trunks into one tree."1 Dr. Richardson, in 1818, stated the oldest trees to be no more than seven.12 The oldest trees were distinguished by having the foliage and small branches at the top only, and by four, five, or even seven trunks springing from one base; the branches and trunks of the others were lower: the trunks of the old trees were covered with the names of travellers and other persons who have visited them, some of which are dated as far back as 1640. The trunks of the oldest trees (the wood of which is of a gray tint) seemed to be quite dead.13 These cedars were the resort of eagles (Ezek. xvii. 3.); as the lofty sum• The heights of ODOROUS Lebanon are eulogized by Musaeus :-Aavou JUDEUTOS EVE #TEрuys. Good's Sacred Idyls, p. 122. Dr. Clarke's Travels, vol. iv. p. 201, 202.

• Light's Travels, p. 219.

• Mr. Kinneir, who visited this country at the close of the year 1813, says, that the once celebrated cedars are now only to be found in one particular spot of the great mountainous range which bears the name of Libanus, and that in so scanty a number as not to exceed four or five hundred. Journey through Asia Minor, &c. p. 172. 8vo. 1818.

10 Buckingham's Travels among the Arab Tribes, pp. 475, 476. 11 Irby's and Mangles' Travels, pp. 209, 210.

19 Maundrell's Journey, p. 191. La Roque, Voyage de Syrie et du Mon. Liban, p. 88. See also Dr. Richardson's Travels, vol. ii. pp. 512, 513. 1 Burckhardt's Travels in Syria and the Holy Land, pp. 20. 21. London, 1822. 4to.

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