of what occurs in other animals, however, leaves no doubt that an actual mixture of the male and female elements takes place and constitutes the essential part of the process of impregnation.

Ova to which spermatozoa have had no access, give rise to no progeny; but, in the impregnated ovum, the young crayfish takes its origin in a manner to be described below, when the question of development is dealt with.

FIG. 35.-Astacus fluviatilis.-The last thoracic sternum, seen from behind, with the proximal ends of the appendages, A, in the male, B, in the female, (x 3): am, articular membrane; cxp, coxopodite; st XIV, last thoracic sternum; vd, aperture of vas deferens.

CHAPTER IV.

THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE COMMON CRAYFISH: THE STRUCTURE AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDIVIDUAL.

IN the two preceding chapters the crayfish has been studied from the point of view of the physiologist, who, regarding an animal as a mechanism, endeavours to discover how it does that which it does. And, practically, this way of looking at the matter is the same as that of the teleologist. For, if all that we know concerning the purpose of a mechanism is derived from observation of the manner in which it acts, it is all one, whether we say that the properties and the connexions of its parts account for its actions, or that its structure is adapted to the performance of those actions.

Hence it necessarily follows that physiological phenomena can be expressed in the language of teleology. On the assumption that the preservation of the individual, and the continuance of the species, are the final causes of the organization of an animal, the existence of that organization is, in a certain sense, explained, when it is shown that it is fitted for the attainment of those ends; although, perhaps, the importance of de

monstrating the proposition that a thing is fitted to do that which it does, is not very great.

But whatever may be the value of teleological explanations, there is a large series of facts, which have as yet been passed over, or touched only incidentally, of which they take no account. These constitute the subject matter of Morphology, which is related to physiology much as, in the not-living world, crystallography is related to the study of the chemical and physical properties of minerals.

Carbonate of lime, for example, is a definite compound of calcium, carbon, and oxygen, and it has a great variety of physical and chemical properties. But it may be studied under another aspect, as a substance capable of assuming crystalline forms, which, though extraordinarily various, may all be reduced to certain geometrical types. It is the business of the crystallographer to work out the relations of these forms; and, in so doing, he takes no note of the other properties of carbonate of lime.

In like manner, the morphologist directs his attention. to the relations of form between different parts of the same animal, and between different animals; and these relations would be unchanged if animals were mere dead matter, devoid of all physiological properties—a kind of mineral capable of a peculiar mode of growth.

A familiar exemplification of the difference between teleology and morphology may be found in such works of human art as houses.

A house is certainly, to a great extent, an illustration of adaptation to purpose, and its structure is, to that extent, explicable by teleological reasonings. The roof and the walls are intended to keep out the weather; the foundation is meant to afford support and to exclude damp; one room is contrived for the purpose of a kitchen; another for that of a coal-cellar; a third for that of a dining-room; others are constructed to serve as sleeping rooms, and so on; doors, chimneys, windows, drains, are all more or less elaborate contrivances directed towards one end, the comfort and health of the dwellers in the house. What is sometimes called sanitary architecture, now-a-days, is based upon considerations of house teleology. But though all houses are, to begin with and essentially, means adapted to the ends of shelter and comfort, they may be, and too often are, dealt with from a point of view, in which adaptation to purpose is largely disregarded, and the chief attention of the architect is given to the form of the house. A house may be built in the Gothic, the Italian, or the Queen Anne style; and a house in any one of these styles of architecture may be just as convenient or inconvenient, just as well or as ill adapted to the wants of the resident therein, as any of the others. Yet the three are exceedingly different.

To apply all this to the crayfish. It is, in a sense, a house with a great variety of rooms and offices, in which the work of the indwelling life in feeding, breathing, moving, and reproducing itself, is done. But the

same may be said of the crayfish's neighbours, the perch and the water-snail; and they do all these things neither better nor worse, in relation to the conditions of their existence, than the crayfish does. Yet the most cursory inspection is sufficient to show that the "styles of archi tecture" of the three are even more widely different than are those of the Gothic, Italian, and Queen Anne houses.

That which Architecture, as an art conversant with pure form, is to buildings, Morphology, as a science conversant with pure form, is to animals and plants. And we may now proceed to occupy ourselves exclusively with the morphological aspect of the crayfish.

As I have already mentioned, when dealing with the physiology of the crayfish, the entire body of the animal, when reduced to its simplest morphological expression, may be represented as a cylinder, closed at each end, except so far as it is perforated by the alimentary apertures (fig. 6); or we may say that it is a tube, inclosing another tube, the edges of the two being continuous at their extremities. The outer tube has a chitinous outer coat or cuticle, which is continued on to the inner face of the inner tube. Neglecting this for the present, the outermost part of the wall of the outer tube, which answers to the epidermis of the higher animals, and the innermost part of the wall of the inner tube, which is an epithelium, are formed by a layer of nucleated cells. A continuous layer of cells, therefore, is everywhere to