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will benefit from this action because educational, scientific, and cultural materials produced abroad will now be made available to them duty free. In like manner, American materials of a similar nature will have easier access to other countries.

In mass communication, UNESCO continued in 1966 to pursue the following priority work which the United States has urged: development of information media, training in their own countries of media personnel, and encouraging the use of mass communication techniques in out-of-school education. Experts were provided to developing countries to assist them in setting up or expanding their information media. Member states were encouraged to send participants to a series of seminars and formal courses of instruction at the various regional training centers supported by UNESCO. Pilot projects to demonstrate the usefulness of audio-visual media for adult education were expanded in Senegal and in Poland. U.S. observers attended a meeting convened by UNESCO in Bangkok on broadcasting in the service of education and development in Asia. The meeting concluded that the role of radio and television should be an inherent part of regional planning for social, educational, and economic development. The meeting emphasized the need for low-cost radio and television receivers, increased training facilities, and international cooperation in program exchange.

A UNESCO-convened meeting of experts on book production and distribution in Asia was attended by representatives of the U.S. Government and the American publishing industry. The meeting designed a short- and long-range program for book development in Asia. Its central recommendation was that book production and distribution should be a planned and integrated component of each nation's overall development effort.

During the past year, 85 leaders, specialists, and students visited the United States under UNESCO auspices, financed by UNESCO travel

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U.S. international meteorological policies and programs are formulated by the Interagency Committee for International Meteorological Programs, established in 1964 and composed of representatives of the Department of State, the Department of Commerce, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Federal Aviation Agency, and the National Science Foundation.

On March 23, 1966, World Meteorological Day, President Johnson asked Secretary of Commerce John T. Connor, his science advisor, Dr. Donald Horning, and Director of the Budget Charles Schultze to study a series of proposals prepared by the Interagency Committee and recommend "a plan of action for America's role in this important international program. "82 At the same time he reaffirmed that the United States would move ahead with plans for a worldwide weather system, in collaboration with other nations, "toward a goal beneficial to all mankind." The President said:

"We know now that our environment is global and indivisible. Knowing this, it follows that the only way to achieve significant improvement of weather services and prediction is by vigorous international cooperation and by worldwide dissemination of weather data.

'. . . Through the World Meteorological Organization the concept of a World Weather Watch is now taking shape. On this occasion, I am proud to say that the United States strongly supports international cooperation in this vital field.

"Much must be accomplished to transform hope into reality. Scientifically, we must move toward a better understanding of our environment. Technologically, we must move toward developing improved systems. But there are no insuperable obstacles-and the opportunities are too great for us to ignore."

83

During 1966 the United States launched three operational satellites: ESSA 63 1, ESSA 2, and ESSA 3. Of these, ESSA 2 carries Automatic Picture Transmission System (APT) cameras, enabling users anywhere to receive pictures on local inexpensive ground equipment. This operational

82 Text in the Department of State Bulletin, Apr. 18, 1966, pp. 618-619.

83 Environmental Survey Satellite.

satellite and five of the experimental weather satellites (TIROS and NIMBUS), which continue to perform satisfactorily, enable the United States to make available data on weather conditions to all nations of the world. In addition, a weather facsimile transmission, employing the new Advanced Technological Satellite (ATS-1) located in a stationary orbit over the Pacific, is being tested by reception at selected American and foreign APT stations.

On September 19, 1966, in the U.N. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Ambassador Goldberg noted some of the practical benefits to shipping, agriculture, and industry that come from the meteorological satellites which provide widely disseminated weather information on a global basis. He noted further that there were almost 50 APT stations outside the United States in some 29 countries, including Argentina, Chile, Hungary, India, Israel, Kenya, Malaysia, Pakistan, Poland, Qatar, and Switzerland, and he reaffirmed the U.S. invitation to all nations to participate in the program.

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EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

At its 18th session in Geneva, May 26-June 10, 1966, the WMO Executive Committee concentrated on preparations for the WWW. It approved a number of proposals for the consideration of the Fifth WMO Congress scheduled for April 1967, including a WWW Plan and proposed modifications in the program and budget for 1968-71. Dr. Robert M. White, Administrator of the U.S. Environmental Science Services Administration, is a member of the Executive Committee.

RELATED ACTIVITIES

The Working Group on Antarctic Meteorology of the WMO Executive Committee met in Melbourne, Australia, from February 23 to March 4, 1966. It recommended ways to improve the meteorological network, forecasting arrangements, and telecommunications in Antarctica and surrounding areas. The third session of the Executive Committee's Panel of Experts on the International Hydrological Decade was held in Geneva in May. The Panel agreed at this time to undertake several technical studies in implementation of the recommendations of the UNESCO Coordinating Council for the International Hydrological Decade.

84 Post, doc. X-33.

its

The Commission for Synoptic Meteorology, the largest of the WMO Technical Commissions, held fourth session in Wiesbaden from March 8 to April 2, 1966. It developed new and important worldwide communication arrangements, codes, forecast procedures, and networks, with special emphasis on their relationship to the WWW. Paul H. Kutschenreuter of the Environmental Science Services Administration was chairman of the U.S. delegation.

The WMO Advisory Committee, which met April 18-22, 1966, with the Committee on Atmospheric Sciences of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, laid particular stress on the research aspects of the WWW, especially the need to understand the general circulation of the atmosphere. Adequate knowledge of this subject will be necessary before long-range forecasts can become accurate and before large-scale weather modification can be practical. The United States is represented on the WMO Advisory Committee by Dr. George P. Cressman, Director of the U.S. Weather Bureau, and by Dr. Walter O. Roberts, Director of the National Center for Atmospheric Research at Boulder, Colorado.

The fourth session of Regional Association IV (North and Central

Document II-82

J Developments in International Law

Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas, Done at Geneva, April 29, 1958, Entered Into Force, March 20, 1966

America) met in Asheville, N.C., in October and revised the regional network and communication and forecasting arrangements. Special emphasis was placed on the problems in the tropical area, and Miami was designated as a Regional Weather Center in the WWW. Dr. White chaired the U.S. delegation to this meeting. Regional Association III (South America) and Regional Association V (Southwest Pacific) also met in 1966 and similarly took steps to improve meteorological services to agriculture, aviation, and marine shipping. Nels E. Johnson of the Environmental Science Services Administration headed the U.S. delegations to these two sessions.

Text in TIAS 5969; 17 UST 138. United States adherence was subject

The WMO serves as executing agency for UNDP projects pertaining to meteorology and hydrometeorology. During 1966 a project to establish an Institute of Tropical Meteorology was completed in India, and new projects were approved for meteorological services development in northeast Brazil; the improvement of the hydrometeorological services in the Central American Isthmus; a hydrometeorological survey of the catchments of Lakes Victoria, Kioga, and Albert in Africa; and the improvement of the Caribbean Meteorological Services.

to an understanding proposed by the U.S. Senate in its advice and consent to ratification (text in 17 UST 185). The understanding set forth that ratification should not be construed as impairing the principle of "abstention," defined as follows:

"Where the nationals of a coastal State, alone or with the nationals of one or more other States, are (a) fishing a stock of fish in an area of the high seas adjacent to the territorial sea of the coastal State with such intensity that an increase in fishing effort will not result in a substantial increase in the yield which can be maintained year after

[Doc. II-821

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The United Nations and International Law

year, and (b) where the maintenance of the current yield, or when possible, the further development of it is dependent upon a conservation programme carried out by those States, involving research and limitations upon the size or quantity of the fish which may be caught, then (c) States whose nationals are not fishing the stock regularly or which have not theretofore done so within a reasonable period of time, shall abstain from fishing such stock, provided however that this shall not apply to any coastal State with respect to fishing any stock in waters adjacent to its territorial sea" (U.N. doc. A/CONF.13/ C.3/L69, Apr. 8, 1958).

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2

Extension of law into the international realm is not going to be achieved in one great utopian stroke of the pen. In the United Nations Charter, and in age-old norms of international law, the community of nations already has a set of fundamental rules which do not need to be rewritten so much as they need to be observed. Our task, therefore, is to make greater use of existing machinery and existing norms-to build on them and to broaden out the areas of international relations that are susceptible to them.

To keep the matter in perspective, let us first recall that the areas of international law and order are al

1 Department of State Bulletin, June 13, 1966, pp. 936-944.

2 Text in American Foreign Policy, 19501955: Basic Documents, vol. I, pp. 134-161.

ready very broad-and they are constantly broadening to fit the emerging common interests of nations. Without law, international mail would not be delivered; shortwave broadcasts would drown each other out; ships, or aircraft, would collide in the night; international business contracts could be violated with impunity; travelers would lack the protection of their governments; infectious diseases and insect pests would cross frontiers all the time; and even we diplomats-who are supposedly fulltime practitioners of power politics-would be unable to carry on our business.

These many functions of the international order are so familiar as almost to be taken for granted. Many of them long antedate the United Nations. But it would be a great mistake to underrate them or to dismiss them as merely "technical" and "nonpolitical." They are bridges of common interest among nations, and the sum of these common interests is one of the great unseen inhibitors of political conflict and international violence. The specialized agencies of the U.N., and all its economic, social, and technical programs, continue to extend these bridges year by year. They are defended not by forcible sanctions but by an incentive just as powerful in its own way: the longterm self-interest of each member.

The United Nations and its agencies, through their economic, technical, and social programs, continue to add to this system of bridges. In doing so, they serve not only the technical convenience of nations but also their desperate need to cure the evils from which lawless action springs: poverty, illiteracy, hunger, disease, and deprivation of human rights. I believe that this multilateral system must be strengthened further wherever possible.

Now I turn to the most difficult area, where law directly confronts political conflict and violence among nations.

The basic law here is in article 2, paragraph 4, of the United Nations Charter: "All members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state." As the charter embodies this law, so the United Nations as an organization should be, ideally, the court of last resort in

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