telescope and no observatory. Yet under difficult conditions he acquired the knowledge, he actually made a highly effective telescope, grinding the lens himself, and with it made discoveries of such importance that they brought him in one year two American medals and one foreign medal; which merely suggests that difficulties are designed to deter the timid and half-hearted, but not the resolute.

With the increasing emphasis which is now being placed upon geography as a social science, there is a decline in the demand for formal laboratory and field work. This does not mean that practical exercises, problems, map work, drawing and platting are not an essential part of humanized geography, for they most emphatically are.

In addition to the preparation of text book assignments, each pupil ought to work out with care two or three special topics; this is a work which not only acquaints him with sources where materials are to be found, but it gives him training in the organization and presentation of topics, a training which often proves more beneficial than the knowledge itself. This independent, constructive work ought not be omitted.

SUMMARIZING—

This paper is a plea for a full year of geography in the high school, taught as a combined physical and social science, taught by a teacher who has a knowledge of modern history and economics and a considerable knowledge of the earth sciences. It is a plea for work in sane physical geography with field studies, followed by a study of regional geography in which the regional units studied are the ones recognized in the bigger world beyond the school room, namely, the countries or nations which make up the modern world and in which all educated people are interested; a study of the politico-economic geography of the British Empire; the German, the Russian, and the Japanese Empires; of France, and China, Italy, and Austria, and our sister republics to the south; a study of their material resources, of their industries and institutions, their people, their cities, their political alliances, and the basic reasons which make them what they are in the family of nations; this with much use of maps, with an emphasis upon locational geography with training in the use of reference books, training in the preparation and presentation of topics, and a constant drill on essential principles and ideas. But all of it to be done in an elementary way befitting the youth of the pupils. This outline may sound like a post-graduate course in a university and such it might be, for geography, like history, is either an elementary or an advanced study, depending upon the manner of treatment.

France produces more potatoes than all North America, and Germany produces more than all of the world outside of Europe. Forty per cent of the German crop is fed to stock, and only 28 per cent is used for human food.

OF

CRATER LAKE

By James F. Chamberlain

State Normal School, Los Angeles, Calif.

F the many wonderful scenic features of our country, few are more interesting or more beautiful than Crater Lake. In addition to its great beauty, the lake enjoys the distinction of being the only one of its kind in the United States and of being the deepest lake within our borders.

In 1853 Crater Lake was discovered. Thirty years later the United States Geological Survey sent out the first party to study it. A considerable area, including the lake, was created a national park in 1902. Owing to its distance from a railroad, the lake has not, until quite recently, been visited by many people.

Crater Lake is situated about 65 miles north of the northern boundary of California and is in the midst of the beautiful Cascade Mountains in the southern part of Oregon. Intending visitors to Crater Lake, if starting on their trip from points in California, should leave the main line of the Southern Pacific Railroad at Weed, California, and proceed by a branch line to the city of Klamath Falls which is very picturesquely situated upon hills at the head of Lake Ewanna, about 15 miles from Lower Klamath Lake. In the vicinity of Lower Klamath and Tule Lakes we see thousands of acres of reclaimed swamp lands which form a part of the Klamath Project.

A bus ride of about fifteen minutes' duration lands passengers at the lower end of Upper Klamath Lake. After a most interesting boat trip of some three hours, the famous Pelican Lodge is reached. This is located on Pelican Bay, at the upper or northern end of the lake. In many places the mountains rise abruptly from the water and are fairly well wooded. Lava flows are seen at several points. To the west the sharp summit of Mount Pitt is plainly visible. Great white pelicans with their black-tipped, wings are numerous and trout leap from the water at frequent intervals as the boat proceeds.

From Pelican Bay Lodge automobiles run directly to the rim of Crater Lake by way of Fort Klamath. The distance is about 40 miles. Much of the country in this vicinity is a very fertile plain which is in part due to the constructive work of glaciers and to deposits made by Anna Creek, Sun Creek, and Williamson River. These streams flow into Klamath Lake. Many of the farmers are Indians who live in quite substantial houses. In the early autumn whole families take up their abode in the huckleberry districts, camping there and gathering the fruit for winter use.

From Fort Klamath the road runs northwest to Crater Lake, a distance of about 20 miles. A few miles out of the town we enter a beautiful forest which continues to the end of our journey. The road swings in graceful curves among the stately firs and pines and at every turn some new beauty is presented. Here a grouse whirs from the cover of the roadside bushes

and flattens himself upon the limb of a tree. There a gaudy flicker wings his way to a new feeding place high up in a yellow pine. A company of magpies occupy a small open space. With their long black tails, black heads and white breasts, they are quite attractive. About half way between Fort Klamath and the rim of the lake we enter Crater Lake National Park. At the most favorable places within the park a speed of 15 miles per hour is permitted. Drivers of automobiles must give all other vehicles the right of

way.

For several miles the road follows close to the rim of Anna Creek Canyon. This is a narrow canyon several hundred feet in depth. By walking a few rods from the auto, very impressive views of erosion columns can be had at a number of points.

Although there is a steady climb, the grades are not steep until we reach a point about three-fourths of a mile from the rim. In most cases automobiles go right to the summit, however. As we swing up on to the rim a most wonderful sight meets out gaze. Here, on the top of an immense truncated mountain, is a great bowl-like depression about five miles in diameter, holding a lake of marvelous blue. The walls of this circular depression are nearly vertical and rise above the water to altitudes varying from 500 to 2200 feet.

Nearly due north of us and about two miles distant, is a small conical island wooded to its summit. Its form at once claims our attention for it is strongly suggestive that the mountain is of volcanic origin. Here and there along the rim of the lake a peak or cliff rises above the general level. Llao Rock on the north, Glacier Peak and the Watchman on the west, on the south, Garfield Park, Vidae Cliff and Dutton Cliff and on the east, Cloudcap, are each a little more than 8000 feet in altitude.

No river flows into Crater Lake and there is no surface outlet. The source of the water is the precipitation that takes place over the 20 square miles which make up the surface of the lake and the small amount derived from the inner face of the rim. Considerable water escapes through the shell that surrounds the lake and some of this comes to the surface in the form of copious springs in the vicinity of Fort Klamath.

The outer slope of the rim is quite moderate, averaging from ten to fifteen degrees. The inner slope, as has been stated, is in most places practically vertical. From the lodge on the rim of the lake, a steep trail leads down to the water, the elevation of which is 6177 feet, or only sixteen feet less than the altitude of the summit of Mount Washington. The descent can be made in twenty minutes but twice this length of time should be allowed for the return trip. Only a few miniature beaches are found. At the foot of the trail some tiny rills deposit their loads of waste when it rains and when snow is melting and here is space for a small launch and two or three row boats.

A pull of thirty minutes will take one by row boat to Wizard Island,

the cone above referred to. As we row, the blue of the water is a constant marvel to us. The clearness of the water is remarkable also, being equal to that of Lake Tahoe. If we were to take the soundings, the depth of the water would be another source of surprise. If at any one of many points in the lake the highest building in New York City were placed and upon this the Eiffel Tower were erected, the top of the tower would be about 200 feet below the surface of the water. Few of the soundings taken have shown

a depth of less than 1000 feet, eighteen show a depth of more than 1900 feet and the maximum depth recorded is 1996 feet. Thus the greatest depth from the rim to the bottom of the lake is practically 4000 feet.

Observations of temperature have shown that the temperature of the water decreases to a depth of 300 feet. From this level to the bottom, the temperature is uniformly 39°F.

Landing upon Wizard Island we find that the waves lap against a lava flow that encircles the island. The slope of this is most gentle on the west. The soundings show that the only shallow part of the lake surrounds the island and therefore it is likely that the flow of lava is responsible for the shallowness of the water. Clambering over the blocks of lava we soon reach a steeper slope which is largely composed of cinders. The climb to the summit gives one considerable exercise as no definite trail can be maintained in the loose materials. That two or three centuries at least have elapsed since the firey flood poured down the slopes of this volcano, is evidenced by the forest trees now growing here.

Wizard Island rises 763 feet above the level of the lake. The climb to the summit can be made in half an hour although a longer time should be taken. From the top we look down into a gloomy pit, the crater of the volcano. It is about 150 feet in depth. The descent can easily be made. Most of the surface is cinder covered. At the bottom is a basin-like depression perhaps twelve feet in diameter. There is no vent of any kind to be

seen.

What was the origin of the basin that holds beautiful Crater Lake? The mountain in the top of which the lake is situated, is clearly an old volcano. The basin was formed by a blowing out of the top of the mountain or by a subsidence. Many years ago Diller pointed out that had the basin originated in the first of these ways, the rim would of necessity be covered by a vast quantity of the fragmental materials ejected. From our boat we observe that this is not the case. Instead, we see sheets of lava dipping out

ward and some glacial material.

It seems that this basin, or caldera, was formed through subsidence. About fourteen cubic miles of material would be required to fill the caldera. How many additional cubic miles were engulfed is not known, for the height of the majestic mountain that once towered above the present lake can not with certainty be stated. As the lava that poured out here is similar to that which has issued from Mount Shasta, and as the diameter

of Mount Shasta and that of the caldera are essentially the same at the level of 8000 feet, geologists believe that the partially destroyed mountain rose to an altitude of about 15,000 feet.

That a lofty mountain did exist here is shown by the glacial striae upon the rocks even at the crest of the rim and by the glacial material on the lower slopes and in the valleys. Unless a mountain once towered above the basin now occupied by the lake, there would be no means of accounting for these. Even were the rim above the snow line, which it is not, a glacier could not form at the very edge of the rim.

Additional evidence of the existence of a lofty mountain is found in the valleys of Sand and Sun Creeks which extend to the rim, forming depressions in the cliffs although their streams begin some little distance below the cliffs. These valleys were formed by ice and water coming from a much higher level. To this partially vanished mountain the name of Mount Mazama has been given. It is believed that Wizard Island and one or two volcanoes that do not rise above the level of the lake, were formed after the engulfment of the mountain.

For the accommodation of visitors at the lake there are comfortable tents with board floors and a large dining room which serves as an assembly room also. The rates are $3.25 per day. A commodious stone hotel, which will no doubt be open in 1915, is now being erected upon the rim. The government is constructing a splendid road through the national park and this will make this part of the trip easier than it is at the present time. The entire trip from Klamath Falls to the lake can be made in one day.

Visitors going to Crater Lake from points north of the California line can leave the Southern Pacific at Medford or Ashland, Oregon. From Medford a road follows the picturesque valley of the Rogue River and enters the national park by what is called the West Entrance. During the tourist season, June 15 to September 30, there is a daily auto service from Medford. Each year Crater Lake is being visited by a larger number of persons and all who see it agree that it is one of the wonders of our country.

Ginn and Company have recently brought out the second in their series of Industrial Studies by Nellie B. Allen of the Fitchburg, Mass., State Normal School. A volume of 335 pages devoted to Industrial Studies, United States, appeared in 1910. The new volume is devoted to Europe. These books are more than supplementary readers; they contain maps, topics for study, lists of geographical names for practice in spelling and pronunciation, and many good illustrations. It is clear that the different "studies" are chosen by a person who understands what children are interested in,-for example, "Portugal and its Cork Forests," "Germany and her Toys and Canaries," "Spain and Olives."